Acanthaceae
1 plantNative range: S. America - Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyanas; C. America - Panama to Mexico; Caribbean
The plant is sweetly fragrant
None known
The plant is antiemetic. A decoction is used as a treatment for upset stomach. A tea is used as a treatment for influenza, fever, whooping cough, fits. An infusion is used to treat headaches caused by blows to the head. It is also used in the treatment of haemorrhages. A decoction of the plant is used as an external bath for a febrifuge. The macerated leaf is applied externally as a vulnerary in the treatment of haematoma. Used in a pectoral tea or eaten in a toffee to treat coughs and colds. An infusion of the leaves is used as a hair rinse to treat hair loss. The plant contains coumarim and umbelliferone.
No data available for this section.
Annonaceae
4 plantsNative range: Coastal regions of tropical and subtropical South and Central America to Florida and the West Indies.
Annona glabra is a plant of the humid, lowland tropics. The plant can survive occasional, short-lived, very light frosts with temperatures down to 0°c. Grows best in a sunny position. Prefers a moist sandy loam and a pH of about 6. This species tolerates wetter conditions than most other members of the genus. The plant can succeed in places where the soil is inundated for weeks at a time. Succeeds in marshy areas with saline water. Annona glabra was introduced into many areas of the world as a potential crop and rootstock for other commercial Annona species. It has proved to be invasive, mostly in and around the Pacific, and is an important wetland weed that also threatens mangroves. Unlike most pioneer species, however, it also invades relatively undisturbed areas. It has proved to be one of the worst weeds in Australia. The thick, reddish bark is very aromatic. Especially when planted in wet soils, young plants grow away rapidly. Trees can begin to flower and set fruit when two years old from seed.
Fruit - raw. The pulp is eaten raw or made into jellies or drinks. Best eaten when fully ripe and soft. Highly fragrant. Slightly sweet, but insipid. It is a kind of survival food. The fruits contain an abundant, creamy-yellow pulp which is often insipid. The flesh is usually palatable, but often pales in comparison to some other species in the genus. Some trees do produce nice fruits, however, and the species has its admirers. The fruit can be up to 150mm long and 90mm in diameter, containing numerous light-brown seeds each up to 15mm long.
The leaves are anthelmintic and antirheumatic. The leaves and young stems, sometimes combined with the leaves and stems of Passiflora foetida, are boiled to make a tea which is drunk to destroy flatworms and nematodes. An infusion of the leaves and the flowers is used to treat rheumatism, liver diseases, hepatitis etc. The bark and the leaves, combined with the bark and leaves of Annona squamosa, are used as a sedative and cardiotonic infusion. The fruit is used as a treatment for dysentery. A syrup made from the fruit is used to treat chest colds, dry coughs and tuberculosis.
This species is a naturally invasive, pioneer species; establishing itself both in open areas and relatively undisturbed areas. It is a very effective plant for restoring native woodland, though it should not be used as a pioneer outside of its native range because of the risk of invasiveness. The plant is not eaten by the Giant African snail, (Achatina fulica), and so it is planted as low dense hedges around desirable crops to prevent infestations of the snail.
Native range: S. America - Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana; C. America - Panama to Mexico; Caribbean.
Annona mucosa is a plant of the hot, humid, tropical lowlands. Plants are very susceptible to frost damage. Prefers a fertile, well-drained soil and a position in full sun. A fast-growing tree. Plants can commence bearing fruit when about 4 years old. The roots are aromatic. The leaves, when bruised, give off an unpleasant smell. Plants are becoming threatened in the wild due to deforestation.
Fruit - raw or cooked. Of excellent quality. The yellow fruits have a juicy, melting flesh of a very pleasant flavour, reminiscent of lemon meringue pie. Delicious. Usually eaten raw, they can also be used in ice cream, pies, cakes etc. The fermented fruit is used to make a beverage. The yellow to brown, globose to depressed ovois, compound fruit can be up to 20cm long and 15cm wide.
The leaves are utilized in folk medicine as a treatment against rheumatism. The powdered seeds are said to be an efficient means of combatting intestinal problems. The powdered seeds are used as a treatment for head lice.
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - northern S. America, southern Central America, Caribbean.
Annona muricata grows best in the moist, humid tropical and subtropical lowlands at elevations up to about 1,000 metres. It prefers a mean annual temperature in the range 25 - 30°c with a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,000 - 2,500mm. The plant is intolerant of frosts. Grows best in a sunny position. Prefers a moist but well-drained, sandy loam with a pH in the range 5.5 - 6.5. Prefers a deep rich loam, but tolerates poor soils. Succeeds in light-textured, alkaline soils. Established plants are very drought tolerant. The plant is widely cultivated as a fruit crop and sometimes escapes from cultivation. Whilst currently assessed as having a low potential for becoming an invasive species, there are some Pacific Islands where it has been reported to be moderately invasive. The leaves have an aroma similar to blackcurrants. Flowers are protandrous, and the pollen is shed as the outer petals open towards the evening. The inner petals open much later and only very slightly, admitting small insects attracted by the fragrance of the flowers. Presumably these insects effect cross-pollination, though rather inadequately, for few flowers set fruit and many fruits are misshapen since numerous ovules are not fertilized. Hand pollination is effective in improving fruit yield and quality. Sporadic flowering and fruiting can occur all year round in favourable conditions. Fruiting starts in the 2nd year, and 5-year-old trees produce 10 - 50 fruits, depending on pollination efficiency and nutrient status. There are many named varieties. The area around the base of the tree should be kept free from weeds or covered with mulch to avoid dehydration of the shallow roots during the dry season. Annona muricata can tolerate dry soil conditions, but the trees shed too many leaves if they experience prolonged drought.
Fruit - raw or cooked. Juicy and refreshingly acid. The fruit has a pineapple like aroma, but its subacid to acid flavour is unique and the pulp is very juicy and rich in vitamin A and C. The fruits are consumed fresh for dessert when fully ripe or mixed with ice cream or milk to make a delicious drink. Immature fruits, harvested when the seeds are still soft, are cooked as a vegetable in soups etc. The most desirable characteristics of the fruit are its extremely pleasing fragrance and flavour. The ovoid fruit contains many seeds; it is up to 20 x 10cm, and can weigh 1 kilo or more. Young shoots - cooked. Eaten as a vegetable. A tea, called corossol tea, is made from the leaves.
Sour sop is often used in traditional medicine. Research has shown that it is antimalarial, uterine stimulant, anticrustacean, antiparasitic, cytotoxic (acetogenins), cardiac depressant, antiamoebic, antibacterial, antifungal, hypertensive, spasmogenic, vasodilator, insecticide, smooth muscle relaxant. The plant contains isoquinoline alkaloids including reticuline. The seed contains galactomannan, sitosterol, stigmasterol and cholesterol. The leaves are antispasmodic, calmative, narcotic. The crushed leaves are used as a remedy for distension and dyspepsia, scabies and skin diseases, rheumatism, coughs and colds. A decoction, often combined with Ludwigia erecta, is used to treat hypertension and heart conditions such as palpitations. A decoction of the leaves, combined with the leaves of avocado (Persea americana) is drunk as an antihypertensive. The leaves may also be used to make a decoction, which is taken orally with salt for digestive tract ailments and to relieve fatigue. The pungent leaves are well-known for their sleep-inducing properties - they can be taken in an infusion, or simply placed under the pillow. Applied externally, the crushed leaves are used to maturate boils and abscesses. A massage of the leaves is good for remedying nervous shock. The crushed, fresh leaves are said to have the effects of smelling salts to treat fainting. The fruit is antiscorbutic, febrifuge, mildly antidysenteric and a good vermifuge. It is used to treat bedwetting in children. A decoction is used to remedy excess foot and hand perspiration. The fruit is used to make a tonic that is used for treating fever, headache, hypertension, and heart problems. A crushed leaf and seed decoction is taken orally for intestinal malaise. The leaves and bark are cardiotonic and sedative. A decoction is used for treating anxiety attacks. The green bark is rubbed on wounds to stop bleeding. Flower or flower bud tea is mixed with honey for colds, chest pain and nerve disorders. The bark and young fruits, which contain tannin, are used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. The green bark is rubbed on wounds to stop bleeding. The seed is an ingredient in a remedy for treating convulsions.
Sour sop is fast growing when young and commences cropping whilst small. It is suitable for intercropping between larger fruit trees such as mango or avocado. When these other species achieve crown closure the sour sops can be removed.
Native range: E. Asia - Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea to northern Australia.
Cananga odorata thrives in the more humid lowland tropics, where it is found at elevations below 1,200 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 20 - 30°c, but can tolerate 16 - 34°c. It can be killed by temperatures of 5°c or lower. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,500 - 2,000mm, but tolerates 700 - 2,800mm. Prefers a fertile, moist but well-drained soil in a sunny position. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 6.5, tolerating 4.5 - 8. Trees have escaped from cultivation to become naturalised in some areas. The flowers are very fragrant, especially at night. At sea-level, saplings of cultivated trees flower when 1.5 - 2 years old and 2 metres tall, though at an elevation of 500 metres flowering may start only after 7 years. Trees can reach full production of essential oils when they are about 10 years old. Individual trees can produce about 120 kilos of flowers a year, yielding about 350g of essential oil. A dwarf variety of Cananga odorata known as var. Fruticosa (Craib) Sinclair, is a bush 1 - 1.5 metres tall, with frequently supernumerary, very curly petals. It flowers throughout the year, but never sets fruits. There are two main groups that can be distinguished in cultivated ylang ylang plants:- cv. Group Cananga (forma macrophylla Steenis), flowers are the source of cananga oil; branches perpendicular to the stem; leaves 20 cm x 10 cm; cultivated in Java, Fiji and Samoa. Cv. Group Ylang-ylang (forma genuina Steenis), the source of ylang-ylang oil; branches more drooping; leaves smaller; probably originating from the Philippines and cultivated throughout the tropics. When the buds open, the flowers are not yet fragrant and the petals are green and covered with white hairs; the petals enlarge, become glabrous and turn from green to yellow after 15 - 20 days and then the flowers emit their powerful and agreeable odour, discernible at a distance. Both cultivated and wild trees flower throughout the year, but with marked seasonal peaks after periods of dry weather.
The essential oil from the flowers is used by the food industry, especially in peach and apricot flavourings. It is used in candies, icings, baked goods, soft drinks and chewing gum.
The flowers, and the essential oil obtained from them, are antipruritic, antifungal, antiseptic and sedative, relieving tension, lowering blood pressure and reducing fever. They are also said to be aphrodisiac. The dried flowers are used in the treatment of malaria and the fresh flowers are made into a paste for treating asthma. Applied externally, they are used to treat skin irritations, conjunctivitis, boils and gout. They are added to bath water to treat impotence and frigidity. The essential oil is important in aromatherapy, where it is used in the treatment of tachycardia, rapid breathing, hypertension, gastrointestinal infections and psycho-sexual complaints. The flowers are harvested of a night time and dried for infusions or distilled for their essential oil. The leaves are used in a treatment for diarrhoea in infants. The leaves are also used in a remedy for treating boils. They are rubbed on the skin to treat itch. The bark is applied against scurf. An infusion of the bark is used for treating stomach ailments such as pains, indigestion and colic. Fluid from the pressed bark is used in treating toothaches and migraine headaches. The seed has been used externally to cure intermittent fever.
Because of its fast growth and its ability to attract birds and bats to its fruit, it is being used for rainforest regeneration in Australia.
Apiaceae
1 plantNative range: Pantropical
Succeeds in lowland tropical and subtropical areas. Prefers a moist to wet soil in sun or partial shade. The plant can grow and flower all year round in moist climates, though it dies down in the dry season in monsoon climatesl. Two forms of the plant are distinguished in Sri Lanka - a small creeping form and an erect bushy form with large leaves and petioles - it is this latter form that is the most popular and is often cultivated as a vegetable. If circumstances are favourable, the first harvest can be obtained 2 - 3 months after planting. Subsequent harvests are possible every 2 months if only leaves are to be harvested. However, creeping types are usually harvested as whole plants. For medicinal use, whole plants are generally harvested at any suitable time of the year. The yield of bushy forms may reach 8 tonnes per hectare of fresh leaves for the first harvest, and 14 tonnes for each subsequent harvest. Yields of the creeping types are lower. Fresh leaves harvested as a vegetable are tied together in small bundles and need to be marketed quickly, as they wilt rapidly.
Leaves - raw or cooked. A slightly bitter flavour, they are used in salads, cooked in curries, soups and stews. Cooked as a vegetable. An aromatic flavour, we have found them to be rather overpowering in salads when used in any but small quantities. A refreshing summer drink is made by diluting the leaf juice with water and adding sugar. A tonic tea is made from the leaves.
Gotu kola is an outstandingly important medicinal herb that is widely used in the Orient and is becoming increasingly popular in the West. One of its traditional Indian names is 'Brahmi' which means 'bringing knowledge of the Supreme Reality' and it has long been used in India both medicinally and as an aid to meditation. It is a very useful tonic and cleansing herb for skin problems and digestive disorders. In India it is chiefly valued as a revitalizing herb that strengthens nervous function and memory. The whole plant is alterative, antibacterial, antiinflammatory, cardio-depressant, febrifuge hypotensive, weakly sedative and tonic It is a rejuvenating diuretic herb that clears toxins, reduces inflammations and fevers, improves healing and immunity, improves the memory and has a balancing effect on the nervous system. It has been suggested that regular use of the herb can rejuvenate the nervous system and it therefore deserves attention as a possible cure for a wide range of nervous disorders including multiple sclerosis. Recent research has shown that gotu kola reduces scarring, improves circulatory problems in the lower limbs and speeds the healing process. It is used internally in the treatment of wounds, chronic skin conditions (including leprosy), venereal diseases, malaria, varicose veins, ulcers etc. It is particularly valued for its effect upon the nervous system, being used in the treatment of conditions such as epilepsy and a range of nervous disorders including senility. Caution should be observed since excess doses cause headaches and transient unconsciousness. Externally, the herb is applied to a range of skin conditions as well as wounds, haemorrhoids and rheumatic joints. The crushed leaves, or extracts of the plant are applied topically in the adjunct treatment of surgical wounds and minor burns. The plant can be harvested at any time of the year and is used fresh or dried. Another report says that the dried herb quickly loses its medicinal properties and so is best used fresh. Much research has been carried out into the medicinal virtues of the plant, with very positive results. Several triterpenoid compounds have been isolated, the most important being asiaticoside, madecassoside, asiatic acid and madecassic acid - these are considered the pharmacologically active principles for treating skin conditions. Trials have confirmed their healing for conditions such as burns, wounds, cellulitis, leprotic infections and skin ulcers. The compounds brahmoside and brahminoside exhibit antispasmodic, antipyretic, central nervous system-depressant and hypotensive activity. The plant has shown promising narcotic analgesic activity mediated through opiodergic receptors. The ethanolic extract has shown anti-stress activity comparable to that of diazepam. Various trials with patients suffering from venous insufficiency of the lower limbs have shown a significant difference in favour of a titrated extract of the plant for the symptoms of heaviness in the lower limbs and oedema. The venous distensibility was also improved by the extract. An aqueous extract of the plant showed activity against the herpes simplex II virus. The compound asiaticoside has been shown to promote healing through bacteriostatic activity and stimulation of the reticuloendothelium.
The plant is sometimes grown to provide ground cover. The flowers are a good source of pollen for honey bees.
Apocynaceae
1 plantNative range: Central America - Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, Belize, Mexico.
Not known
Flowers and flower buds - cooked and used as a vegetable. Eaten with rice or other foods. They are added to 'pupusa', a popular stuffed tortilla in El Salvador. In Guatemala they are an essential ingredient of 'pollo en crema', a rare and celebrated delicacy.
None known
No data available for this section.
Araceae
4 plantsNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Native range: E. Asia - China, Indian subcontinent, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea, north Australia, western Pacific
A temperature in the range of 25 - 35°c is required with an annual rainfall of 1,000 - 1,500mm. Corm development is promoted during dry periods. The best crops are produced on deep, fertile, alluvial soils that are slightly acid. Dislikes heavy clay soils. Plants require some shade, especially when young. Members of this genus generally require a moist but well-drained, humus-rich, fertile soil and a position in dappled shade. The plants are usually grown on a three year cycle. An interesting technique used in Indonesia is to dig up the tuber after one year and then replant it upside down. This stimulates the lateral buds into growth and increases the overall size of the tuber. Yields of 20 tonnes per hectare can be achieved. There are many cultivated forms, some of which have a lower content of calcium oxalate crystals and less or no alkaloids. The plant produces one or two enormous leaves and one short flowering stem annually. When ripe for pollination, the flowers have a foetid smell to attract carrion flies and midges. This smell disappears once the flowers have been pollinated. Like many species in the family Araceae, this plant has the ability to heat the flowering spadix as the pollen becomes ready for fertilization. This heat greatly increases the strength of the aroma released by the plant, thus attracting more pollinating insects. It can also have the effect of making the insects more active, thus increasing the level of fertilization.
Corm - cooked. Acrid raw, it must be thoroughly boiled or baked (see notes above on 'Known Hazards'). A very large root, it can be up to 50cm in diameter. Corms are usually harvested when three years old, at this stage they can weigh up to 9kg. The corms can be stored for several months at 10°c. Some caution is advised, see notes above on toxicity. The fresh corms are turned into curd, or are chopped then dried. The curd is relatively tasteless, but it absorbs flavours well and so can be used as a carbohydrate element in a wide range of other foods. Young leaves and petioles - cooked and used as a vegetable. They must be thoroughly cooked. Caution is advised, see notes above on possible toxicity.
The root is carminative, restorative, stomachic and tonic. It is dried and used in the treatment of piles and dysentery. The fresh root acts as an acrid stimulant and expectorant, it is much used in India in the treatment of acute rheumatism. Some caution is advised, see the notes above on toxicity. The stem is cut, and the inside of the stem eaten raw, in the treatment of snakebites. The sap from the petiole is fermented and drunk as a treatment for diarrhoea and dysentery.
Plants are often grown as an understorey crop in woodlands or in plantations of betel (Areca spp.), coconuts (Cocos nucifera), bananas (Musa spp.) or coffee (Coffea spp.).
No cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Arecaceae
1 plantNative range: S. America - Tropical Brazil extending north to Guyana, Venezuela and Trinidad.
A plant of the moist to wet tropics, where it is found at elevations up to 3,000 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22 - 28°c, but can tolerate 16 - 32°c. It can be killed by temperatures of 5°c or lower. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,800 - 2,300mm, but tolerates 1,200 - 3,000mm. Prefers a position sheltered from the sun with plenty of moisture. Mature plants should be able to tolerate full sun, so long as there is plenty of humidity. Prefers a rich, moist, well-drained soil. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 5.5, tolerating 4.5 - 6.5. A moderately robust species, it usually produces multiple stems (up to 12 stems) though sometimes it only has one stem with a few suppressed suckers at the base. A fast-growing plant. Plants usually flower throughout the year but the fruit harvesting season is for only 6 months of the year.
Fruit - raw or cooked. A thin, fibrous, fleshy pulp with little flavour. A very nutritious fruit, rich in antioxidants, it is often used to make a drink that is very popular in the Amazon region of Brazil. The juice is extracted from the small round fruit by soaking the seeds in water to soften the thin outer shell and then squeezing and straining them to produce a very tasty, dense purple liquid. This liquid is served ice cold with (or sometimes without) sugar and tapioca flour. It is a nourishing and refreshing drink that is also used to produce ice cream, liquor, mousses and sweets in general. The juice is also added to various foods such as tapioca, cassava and porridge. The purplish-black fruit is about 15 - 25mm in diameter, and is borne in huge clusters of up to 1,000 fruits. Leaves - cooked. Crunchy, with a sweet flavour. Said to resemble artichokes (Cynara scolymus). The unexpanded leaves and bud from the crown of the plant are used. Harvesting these leaves eventually kills the stem of the plant because it is unable to produce side shoots, although the plant can produce new stems from its base. An edible oil is obtained from the seed.
A cold water infusion of the wood in the stem is used as an external wash for a contraceptive. The sap is styptic. It is used to treat haemorrhages, scorpion bites, and is used in the treatment of wounds and cuts. A decoction of the leaves is used in the treatment of fevers. An infusion of whole seedlings is used to treat shot wounds from hunting. The central bud, or heart, is roasted and applied topically to soothe the pain of scorpion stings;. The juice from the roasted bud should be drunk at the same time. Overeating of the heart or pith causes diarrhoea. The heart is dried, pulverised and then used in a plaster to cicatrize open cuts. The liquid extracted from the warm heart is patted on an open wound. The oil from the fruit is used in the treatment of diarrhoea. A tea made from the roots is used to treat jaundice and to strengthen the blood. A tea made from the seeds is used to treat fevers. The fruit is used in a savoury, violet-coloured beverage that is drunk as a refreshant. Phenols occur in the heart of palm.
No data available for this section.
Asteraceae
2 plantsNative range: Southern N. America - Mexico, through C. America to Honduras
Tagetes lucida is found mainly in subtropical climates and is not very cold tolerant, There are forms that will tolerate temperatures occasionally falling to around -5°c for short periods, but will not usually survive an average winter in the temperate zone unless given some protection. Requires a well-drained moderately fertile soil in a sunny position. Grows well in heavy clay soils and in sandy soils. A very ornamental plant, there are some named varieties. 'Huichol' is a traditional clone used by the Huichol Indians that grows at an elevation of 1500 - 1800m in Mexico. The blooms are amongst the most sweetly-scented of all flowers. Removing dead flowers before the seed is formed will extend the flowering season. Plants are prone to slugs, snails and botrytis. Grows well with tomatoes.
The leaves are dried and ground into a powder then used as a tarragon substitute for flavouring soups, sauces etc. They have an anise-like flavour. The leaves were an important flavouring of 'chocolatl', the foaming cocoa-based drink of the Aztecs. The dried leaves and flowering tops are brewed into a pleasant anise-flavoured tea. This is a very popular drink in Latin America. The petals are used as a condiment.
The leaves and whole plant are digestive, diuretic, febrifuge, hypotensive, narcotic, sedative and stimulant. Use of the plant depresses the central nervous system, whilst it is also reputedly anaesthetic and hallucinogenic. It is used internally in the treatment of diarrhoea, nausea, indigestion, colic, hiccups, malaria and feverish illnesses. Externally, it is used to treat scorpion bites and to remove ticks. The leaves can be harvested and used as required, whilst the whole plant is harvested when in flower and dried for later use.
Secretions from the roots of growing plants have an insecticidal effect on the soil, effective against nematodes and to some extent against keeled slugs, they also have an effect against some persistent weeds such as couch grass. These secretions are produced about 3 - 4 months after sowing. The growing plant also has a repellent effect on various insect pests such as the asparagus beetle and bean weevils.
Native range: C. America - Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Honduras, Belize, Guatemala, Mexico.
A plant of the tropics and subtropics, it can also be grown as a summer annual in temperate areas. It the tropics it can be found at elevations from 200 - 2,300 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 15 - 31°c, but can tolerate 12 - 38°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,000 - 2,000mm, but tolerates 700 - 2,500mm. Succeeds in any well-drained, moderately fertile soil in a sunny position. Plants are moderately drought-resistant. Commonly grown as an ornamental, the plant has escaped from cultivation and become a weed in many areas of the tropics and subtropics. The plant can flower and produce seed all year round.
None known
Various studies have been carried out into the medicinal properties of this plant:- A methanol extract of the dried leaves reduced pain levels and inhibited oedema and granuloma, confirming the plants traditional use in the treatment of painful inflammatory conditions. The leaves contain sesquiterpene lactones, including tagitinin ,which possess insecticidal properties. A study showed it possessed antimicrobial activity, active against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, suggesting that the leaves can be used in treating gastrointestinal infections, skin diseases and urinary tract infections. An 80% ethanol extract of the leaves showed reduction of blood glucose levels 3 weeks after a single oral dose, also significantly lowering plasma insulin, decreasing blood glucose in an insulin tolerance test. The results suggest it may be useful in the treatment of type2 diabetes. Aqueous and methanolic extracts of the plant had 50% and 74% clearing of malarial parasites respectively, compared to 100% for chloroquine. It was more effective when administered at the onset of the infection, suggesting a time-dependency of the anti-malarial effects. A 70% methanol extract showed a dose- and time-dependent toxic effect on the kidney and liver toxicity. Although reversible, it raises concern over the safety of the use of the plant extract against malaria. The leaves contain a bitter essential oil. A decoction of the leaves is sometimes used in the treatment of malaria. An infusion of leaves is used in the treatment of constipation, stomach pains, indigestion, sore throat and liver pains. The leaves should be ground into small pieces, mixed with water, and then drunk Leaf extracts are used externally for the treatment of wounds and haematomas.
The plant is used for soil improvement and has a positive effect on crop yields. Yields of maize, kale, French beans, tomatoes and Napier grass all increased when they were planted with this species Planted as a living fence.
Basellaceae
1 plantNative range: A widely cultivated plant, its original range uncertain but was possibly Africa.
Basella alba is a plant of the moist tropics, where it is found at elevations up to 1,500 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 23 - 27°c, but can tolerate 10 - 35°c. It is not tolerant of frost. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 2,000 - 2,500mm, but tolerates 700 - 4,200mm. It requires a minimum daytime temperature of 15°c if it is to keep growing vigorously. It tolerates low light levels plus night temperatures occasionally falling below 10°c. Best growth is produced in a well-drained moisture-retentive soil rich in organic matter and a warm sunny sheltered position. Plants produce larger, more succulent leaves when grown in light shade. Prefers a sandy loam, but it is well adapted to a range of soils and climates. Tolerates fairly poor soils but does much better in rich soils. Tolerates high rainfall. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 7 but can tolerate 4.3 - 7.5. A fast growing insect and disease resistant plant, it is capable of producing a crop within 70 days from seed in a warm climate. Plants do not flower if the length of daylight is more than 13 hours per day. A vigorous, fast-growing plant, when established it can be harvested every week or so by removing young shoots 7 - 13cm long. In addition to keeping the plant within bounds, this encourages the production of side shoots and thus more stems to harvest. A short-term crop yields up to 40 tonnes per hectare in 75 days; for long-term crops, yields are very variable, up to 1.5 kg of shoots or leaves per plant or 80 tonnes in 180 days. Yields of 20 - 50 tonnes per month of cultivation have been reported. This species photosynthesizes by a more efficient method than most plants. Called the 'C4 carbon-fixation pathway', this process is particularly efficient at high temperatures, in bright sunlight and under dry conditions.
Leaves and stem tips - raw or cooked. A pleasant mild spinach flavour, the leaves can be used as a spinach or added to salads. Do not overcook the leaves or they will become slimy. The mucilaginous qualities of the plant make it an excellent thickening agent in soups, stews etc where it can be used as a substitute for okra, Abelmoschatus esculentus. The leaves are a good source of vitamins A and C, iron and calcium, a nutritional analysis is available. An infusion of the leaves is a tea substitute. The purplish sap from the fruit is used as a food colouring in pastries and sweets. The colour is enhanced by adding some lemon juice.
The roots are astringent. They are cooked and used in the treatment of diarrhoea. A paste of the root is applied to swellings and is also used as a rubefacient. The leaves and stems are cooked and eaten for their laxative properties. The leaf juice is a demulcent, used in cases of dysentery. It is also diuretic, febrifuge and laxative. The leaf juice is used in Nepal to treat catarrh. A paste of the leaves is applied externally to treat boils and sores. The flowers are used as an antidote to poisons. The plant is febrifuge, its juice is a safe aperient for pregnant women and a decoction has been used to alleviate labour. The red juice of the fruit is used as eye drops to treat conjunctivitis.
The plant can be grown on living stakes, usually on a fence or on a hedge.
Bignoniaceae
1 plantNative range: S. America - Brazil and Peru, north to Costa Rica.
A plant of the tropical rainforests. Prefers a moisture-retentive, humus-rich soil. The crushed foliage smells strongly of garlic.
The leaves and stems are used as a condiment or spice for their garlic flavour and odour. The bark and dried leaves are used as a seasoning that is added to salt meals.
Bejuco de Ajo is a widely used herb with a high reputation among many of the indigenous peoples of the Amazon. Almost all parts of the plant are utilized in the treatment of a range of conditions. The plant is considered to be 'magical' or 'spiritual' and bunches of the leaves are suspended around the home for good luck or in order to drive away evil spirits. The leaves are burned as smudge over people or in houses to 'cleanse the spirit' or to bring good luck, and the plant is sometimes also used as an adjuvant in ayahuasca potions. The plant has also become a popular treatment in modern herbal medicine in S. America, where it is considered to be anodyne, antibacterial, anticholesterolemic, antifungal, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antirheumatic, antispasmodic, antitussive, antiviral and febrifuge. It has also been recommended as a vermifuge. It is widely used for treating conditions such as arthritis, rheumatism, body aches and pain, and muscle aches, injuries and pain. A decoction of the bark is used to treat abdominal pain and intestinal parasites. Combined with the leaves, it is used to treat fevers. The bark is used as a poultice on bumps, swellings and inflammatory conditions of the skin. The leaves are used in the treatment of colds and as an aid to fertility. Mashed, the leaves are applied as a poultice on areas of rheumatic pain.They are commonly added to baths in order to treat feverish conditions, flu, body aches, cramps and fatigue. Both the bark (in an infusion) or the leaves (in a decoction) are used as a treatment for rheumatism, arthritis, colds, uterine disorders, inflammation and epilepsy. The root is prepared in a cane alcohol tincture as an overall regenerative whole body tonic. The plant contains a number of medically active compounds. These include several of the main sulphur compounds that garlic contains, including aliin and allyl sulphides.. It is these compounds which are responsible for the garlic-like odour and taste. These compounds are known to lower blood-cholesterol levels and inhibit absorption of cholesterol in the intestines. The wood of the vine is reported to contain two lapachone chemicals which are well known plant chemicals of the Bignoniaceae family and documented with anticancer and antimicrobial actions. The leaves and/or flowers contain the known anti-inflammatory and antibacterial plant steroids beta sitosterol, stigmasterol, daucosterol, and fucosterol. A water extract of the leaves has been shown to have an antioxidant effect which has been attributed to the anthocyanin compounds found in the plant. Research has confirmed the plant’s long standing use for treating arthritis and rheumatism, reporting that the plant is capable of inhibiting COX (an enzyme required in the inflammatory process). The plant has also been reported with antimicrobial actions against fungi, plant viruses, and bacteria, which may help explain its long standing use for colds, flu, pneumonia and other upper respiratory infections.
This plant is being tested as a method of controlling shoot borers (Hypsipyla sp.) when planted in association with timber species such as Cedrela and Swietenia.
Bixaceae
1 plantNative range: S. America - Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyanas; C. America - Panama to Mexico.
Annatto requires a frost-free, warm, humid climate. It can grow at elevations from sea level up to 2,200 metres in tropical to subtropical climates where a mean annual rainfall of 2,500 - 5,000mm is distributed throughout the year. It can withstand droughts of up to 4 months, but thrives best with well distributed rainfall and a dry season for seed ripening. It prefers a mean annual temperature in the range 28 - 32°c, with a mean maximum temperature of 22 - 27°c and a mean minimum temperature of 18 - 26°c. An easily grown plant, it succeeds on almost all soil types, preferring a moist, but well-drained neutral or slightly alkaline soil in a sunny position. Prefers a slightly acid soil according to another report. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 7.5, tolerating 4.5 - 8.5. It grows into a larger tree when planted in deeper and more fertile soil, rich in organic matte. Plants commence fruiting when quite young. Trees can commence bearing fruit when only 2 years old. Seed-grown plants take longer to flower than vegetatively propagated ones, and do so sparingly. Under favourable conditions, fruiting commences 18 months from planting or earlier, and full crops of seeds are obtained after 3 - 4 years. Seed yields reach their peak when the trees are 4 - 5 years of age, usually a decline become evident around 12 years, but productivity can continue for up to 20 years. Seed yields from 0.5 - 5 tonnes/ha per year have been reported, but usually yields are between 800 - 1,500 kg/ha. 20 - 50g of dye can be obtained from 1 kilo of seed. In Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, flowering occurs mainly in spring and fruiting chiefly in the summer. In some areas the tree can produce flushes of fruits at several times through the year.
The seeds are relatively tasteless. They are briefly steeped in hot oil which is then strained and cooled to be used as a flavouring in various dishes. The whole seeds can be ground into a paste with various other spices, which gives a more pronounced flavour. The seeds have a high nutritive value, containing a small amount of fatty oil (5%) and about 13% of protein. The ground seed is red and this can be used to colour foods. A yellow colour is obtained from the seed coat, and this is widely used as a colouring in margarines etc in the food industry. It is a harmless, non-carcinogenic dye.
The medical properties of annatto are poorly understood, but it is a bitter, astringent, purgative herb that reputedly destroys intestinal worms, lowers fever, improves digestion and has expectorant effects. A decoction of the leaves is used as a treatment for dysentery, and to reduce vomiting during pregnancy. The leaves are applied to the head and to sprains to relieve aches. A decoction is gargled as a cure for mouth and throat infections. The leaves may also be used in baths as an antiinflammatory, and to relieve muscular aches, fevers, colic or to get rid of worms in children. The fresh shoots are steeped in water, which is then used as a eyewash for inflamed eyes. The leaves can be picked as required and used fresh or dried. The sap from the leaf petiole is soaked in hot water with rum, then used to remove secretions from encrusted eyelids as a treatment for blepharitis. Young shoots are applied locally as a poultice on abscesses. The roots are digestive and diuretic. A decoction is taken orally to control asthma. An infusion of the root in water and rum is used to treat venereal diseases. A tea made from the root is used to treat oliguria and jaundice. The seeds are used as an aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, expectorant and vermifuge. They are used to treat asthma and nasal cavity problems. A macerated seed decoction is taken orally for the relief of fevers. In a syrup, they are used in the treatment of pharyngitis and bronchitis. The ground seeds are applied to burns in order to prevent blistering and scarring. The seeds are harvested as the fruits split open, and can be dried for later use. They can also be soaked in hot water - the resulting sediment is pressed into cakes for use in medicines and dyes. The pulp surrounding the seed is made into an astringent drink used to treat cancer, dysentery and kidney infections. The fruit pulp is used as a rub on the skin to prevent sores, probably from sunburn. The dye obtained from the seed coat is used as an antidote for prussic acid poisoning caused by eating poorly treated Manihot esculenta. Sap from the bark and crushed leaves is used as a treatment for skin rashes. A decoction of the bark is used as a treatment for malaria; angina and asthma. The leaves contain cyanidine and ellagic acid.
The plant is amenable to pruning and can be grown as a hedge. Plants are tolerant of hard trimming.
Cactaceae
3 plantsNative range: C. America - Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Belize, Guatemala north to southern Mexico
Epiphyllum oxypetalum is a warm climate species, widely cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas at elevations from 75 - 2,000 metres. It is not tolerant of frosts. The plant is epiphytic or lithophytic. It grows well in full sun or light afternoon shade. It requires a compost rich in oganic matter and adequate moisture during the dry months. The plant requires shade during the hottest part of the day, a humus rich, free-draining soil and a pH below 6. The plant has escaped from cultivation and become naturalized in many parts of the world. The flowers open of a night time and are sweetly scented.
The flower is rich in mucilage. It is often eaten in a vegetable soup. The purplish red, oblong fruits are edible but rarely produced, They can be up to 16cm long and 5.7cm wide.
It is a common practice in Guatemala to bind the tough, wide stems of the various Epiphyllum species around fractures. They act as efficient bandages, hold the broken parts in place, and are popularly believed to aid in healing them. Epiphyllum oxypetalum is used in homeopathy and is also recommended as a treatment for urinary tract infections, for heart conditions such as the crushing pain of angina and for spasmodic pain and haemorrhage. In folk medicine, the plant has been used to treat the spitting up of blood sputum and heavy or painful menstrual periods. The juice of the plant has been used as a treatment for bladder infections, shortness of breath and water retention. Applied externally, it has been used as a treatment for rheumatism. It is also assumed to be an aphrodisiac. The main essential oils in the flowers are benzyl salicylate and methyl linoleate. The leaves contain saponins, phenolic compounds, steroids, glycosides, tannins, terpenoids and resins, while reducing sugars, alkaloids, flavonoids, sterols, phlobatanins and acidic compounds were absent. The leaves were found to have 14 mg/g protein, 4.6 mg/g lipids and 0.19 mg/g niacin dry basis. Both acetone and petroleum ether leaf extracts have shown inhibitory activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus; the acetone extract was also active against Klebsiella pneumonia, while the petroleum ether leaf extract was active against Bacillus subtilis. All the leaf extracts were found to be ineffective against fungi (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, Aspergillus oryzae and Rhizopus oryzae) tested. Epiphyllum oxypetalum extract was found to have a moisturizing effect on the skin. The extract increased ATP content, cell propagating activity and the yield of natural moisturizing factor in the epidermal cells.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Original habitat is obscure, possibly Mexico.
Opuntia ficus-indica is a plant of the cool, semi-arid tropics and subtropics, where it can be found at elevations up to 2,600 metres, it can also be grown in warm temperate areas, especially those with a Mediterranean-type climate. Requires a sandy or very well-drained soil). , 3 Title Growing Unusual Fruit. Publication Author Simmons. A. E. Publisher David & Charles; Newton Abbot. Year 1972 ISBN 0-7153-5531-7 Description A very readable book with information on about 100 species that can be grown in Britain (some in greenhouses) and details on how to grow and use them. ]. Prefers a pH in the range 7 to 7.5, tolerating 6.5 - 8.2. Plants must be kept fairly dry in the winter but they like a reasonable supply of water in the growing season. A position at the base of a south-facing wall or somewhere that can be protected from winter rain is best for this plant. Requires warmth and plenty of sun. Plants tolerate considerable neglect. The plant is widely grown from the warm temperate to the tropical zones and has often escaped from cultivation. It has become an invasive weed in many areas, including around the Red Sea, the Mediterranean, S. Africa and Mexico. There is a distinction between the spiny naturalized pears, which are invasive weeds and the cultivated, spine-less forms which are much better behaved. These spineless forms exist in several cultivars including. Opuntia ficus-indica forma inermis Opuntia ficus-indica forma amyclaea and Opuntia ficus-indica forma elongata. A slow-growing plant. Seedlings usually commence bearing fruits when 5 - 6 years old, cuttings can start fruiting when 2 - 3 years old. A number of distinct botanical varieties are recognised. Many different races are cultivated for their fruits. There are some named varieties, one at least of which is free from spines and irritant hairs.
Fruit - raw, cooked or dried for later use. Sweet and gelatinous. Very refreshing, they are somewhat like a watermelon in flavour. The fruits can also be dried (tunas secas, tunas pasadas) or cooked and then further prepared for queso de tuna (pressed, dried fruits), miel de tuna (treacle), melcocha (a kind of treacle), coloncha (fermented juice), and nochote (juice with pulque and water). Of high nutrient value. The fruits are up to 10cm long and 9cm wide. Individual fruits weigh from 100 - 200 grammes. Be careful of the plants irritant hairs, see the notes above on toxicity. Stem segments (or pads) - cooked and used like French beans, or used as a pot herb. Watery and very mucilaginous. The pads are generally 30 - 40cm long, though can be up to 80cm, and are 18 - 25cm wide. Flowers - raw. Seed - ground into a meal. An edible gum is obtained from the stem. The red fruit colour of some varieties is used as a dye for food.
The flowers and stems are antispasmodic, diuretic and emollient. The flowers are astringent and are used to reduce bleeding and treat problems of the gastro-intestinal tract, especially diarrhoea, colitis and irritable bowel syndrome. The flowers are also used in the treatment of an enlarged prostate gland. A piece of the stem is placed in water, and the water given as a remedy for dropsy. Several thin slices of the stem are warmed and placed in water, and the water is drunk as a remedy for stomach inflammations. An infusion of the ground stem is used for treating stomach ulcers. The split stems have been bound around injured limbs as a first aid measure. Slices of the stem are applied to inflammations of the joints, skin and intestines to draw off heat. A small piece of the stem in a glass of water is used for removing mucus from inflamed eyes. The fruit is diuretic. Eating the fruit turns the urine red. We have no further specific information on medicinal uses for this species, but the following notes are likely to apply universally to Opuntia species and other related genera. The flesh of tender young stem segments can be applied as a poultice to reduce inflammation. The mucilage and soluble fibre found in the flowers and stem segments have been shown to help control blood-sugar levels associated with adult-onset diabetes. There is clinical evidence that the soluble fibre in the stem segments helps reduce blood cholesterol levels.
The spiny forms of this plant make an excellent stock-proof barrier or hedge. Due to the plants propensity to spread into native environments, however, this practice should only be carried out within its native range or any other areas where it has proved to be better behaved. The plant has a wide-spreading, surface-rooting habit, which makes it useful in soil stabilization. Cactus hedges play a major role in erosion control and land-slope partitioning, particularly when established along contours. The hedge is a physical obstacle to runoff, favouring temporary local runoff accumulation and silting, thus preventing regressive erosion. In arid lands subject to wind erosion, cactus hedges are an easy, cheap and efficient way of prevention and control of top soil loss and accumulation of wind-borne deposits.
Native range: S. America - Peru, Colombia, Ecuador.
Selenicereus megalanthus can tolerate very high temperatures, and also occasional low temperatures to 0°c. Often an epiphytic plant, though it also grows on the ground. Requires a well-drained soil and a pH of 6 or lower. The flowers open during the night. Although not fragrant at first, they become very fragrant as the night progresses.
Fruit - raw. A succulent pulp with a sweet flavour. Some forms have a thin skin and an extremely delicious flavour. The fruit is around 12cm long and 7cm wide. Immature fruits have tufts of thin spines, but these fall off naturally as the fruit ripens.
None known
No data available for this section.
Clusiaceae
1 plantNative range: Northern S. America - Guyana; C. America - Panama, Caribbean - Trinidad to Haiti and Jamaica.
Not known
Fruit - raw. Eaten by children. The yellow, ellipsoid fruit is around 30 - 40mm long. The skin is thin, inside there are 2 - 3 large, fleshy seeds surrounded by a sweet and succulent edible pulp. It is used for making drinks and preserves. There is a report that the tree is cultivated on a commercial basis for its fruit in northern Australia, where the fruit skin is also used to make a refreshing drink. We are not sure if this report properly belongs to this species or is more correctly applied to another species - see notes above on taxonomy.
The sap is applied to the skin for its healing properties.
No data available for this section.
Combretaceae
1 plantNative range: S. America - Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana; C. America - Panama to southern Mexico.
The plant can tolerate some frost. A fast-growing plant. Responds well to pruning, it is possible to keep it cut back to a medium shrub size.
The cut stem yields a considerable amount of sap that may be drunk when water is lacking.
None known
No data available for this section.
Cucurbitaceae
1 plantNative range: S. America - possibly Brazil or Peru.
A plant of the lowland tropics, where it is found at elevations from sea level to around 500 metres.
Fruit - raw or cooked. The ripe fruits have a pleasant, aromatic flavour and are sliced thinly and eaten raw. The raw flesh is difficult to chew and swallow. Harvested both at the immature and mature stage, the fruit can be used as a boiled vegetable, added to soups and stews or used in preserves. A sweetened drink is made from the pulp. The large orange-crimson fruit is up to 60cm long and looks somewhat like a cucumber.
A slightly fermented drink is made from the pulp with sugar added for throat ailments.
No data available for this section.
Dioscoreaceae
1 plantNative range: E. Asia - southern China, Bangladesh, northeast India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaya
Not known
Tender leaves - eaten in curries. Inflorescences - eaten in curries.
An alcoholic maceration of the rhizome is used externally as a liniment in the treatment of rheumatism. Oral administration is prohibited in Vietnamese herbalism. The rhizome is also used as raw material for the extraction of diosgenin. The rhizomes can be harvested at any time of the year. They are washed, then dried for later use. The rhizomes contain cholan saponins that yield diosgenin on hydrolysis, taccaoside and beta-sitosterol. Diosgenin is a phytosteroid sapogenin. It is widely used in modern medicine in order to manufacture cortisone, progesterone and other steroid drugs. These are used as contraceptives and in the treatment of various disorders of the genitary organs as well as in a host of other diseases such as asthma and arthritis
No data available for this section.
Erythroxylaceae
1 plantNative range: S. America - northern Brazil, Bolivia, Peru.
A plant of moderate to higher elevations in the tropics. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 17 - 23°c, but can tolerate 14 - 27°c. Mature plants can be killed by temperatures of -5°c or lower, but young growth will be severely damaged at -1°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,000 - 2,100mm, but tolerates 700 - 4,000mm. Widely cultivated in the Andean region of the tropics, where it locally also occurs wild, the plant is not easy to cultivate elsewhere, and it is little known in other parts of the world. In South-East Asia, it is only grown in botanical gardens, not as a crop. The form Erythroxylum coca ipadu is only found as a cultivated plant in Amazonian lowland rain forest areas. Grows best in a sunny position. Succeeds in most fertile, well-drained soils. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 6.5, tolerating 4.3 - 8. Plants take 1 - 3 years from seed to the first harvest, and then have an economical life of around 20 years. Annual yields are up to 2 tonnes/ha of dried leaves.
None known
The leaves contain cocaine and other alkaloids. They are narcotic, cerebral-stimulant and locally anaesthetic. The alkaloids are extracted and used to make various pharmaceutical drugs, including a local anaesthetic. Chewed with lime or plant ashes the leaves cause a feeling of easiness and increasing energy. Therefore they are used by native peoples as a stimulant to better endure hunger, thirst and physical stress. An infusion of the leaves serves also as remedy for altitude sickness, the feared 'soroche'.
No data available for this section.
Fabaceae
3 plantsNative range: S. America - Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyanas; Caribbean - Trinidad; C. America - Panama to Guatemala.
Not known
None known
The stem is used in the treatment of venereal disease. A decoction of the stems and leaves is used as a treatment for cramps. A liquid made from the stem is used as a wash for treating fevers. The wood is said to be anodyne, aphrodisiac and astringent. A decoction is drunk to treat diarrhoea and to expel stomach worms. The root is used to treat diarrhoea. The sap is used to treat diarrhoea. A decoction of the bark is drunk as a remedy for diarrhoea. A decoction of the grated stem bark is drunk to relieve diarrhoea and stomachaches. The bark decoction is used externally as a wash to treat fevers.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Pantropical.
Butterfly pea is essentially a plant of the humid and subhumid tropical lowlands at elevations from sea level to around 1,600 metres. It is also grown as an annual in warm temperate areas. It grows best in areas with an annual rainfall in the region of 1,500mm, but it has a reputation for drought tolerance in the seasonally dry tropics (with 500 - 900 mm annual rainfall) and can probably survive with as little as 400mm annual rainfall. Its annual mean temperature range is 19 - 28°c and it has survived moderate frost damage in the subtropics (at a latitude of 26°S). Plants can succeed on a variety of soils as long as they are well-drained, but prefer a fertile, friable soil, growing poorly on infertile sandy soils if they not fertilized. It does well on heavy clay soils. Prefers a position in full sun. It succeeds within a pH range of 5.5 - 8.9. Butterfly pea is one of the few herbaceous legumes well adapted to heavy clay soils in the subhumid to semi-arid tropics and the only one with potential in irrigated pasture mixtures on these soils. Early growth of the plant from seed is rapid in warm moist conditions. Growth of established plants is mostly from the apices of the main axis and axillary branches; very few new shoots arise from ground level. Growth is more or less continuous in the humid tropics, or with irrigation in other hot regions. Individual plants may live for several years and grow into large vines if undisturbed. In the seasonally dry tropics and in cool regions, growth is limited by lack of moisture or low temperatures. Leaves are shed in response to these stresses and top growth may be killed by frost or fire. However, recovery during the following growing season is usually good Butterfly pea competes fairly well with weeds once established and can cover the ground in 4 - 6 weeks when sown at a population of 4 plants per square metre. Establishment may be a problem on fertile soils if sown with a vigorous companion grass or oversown into an existing pasture. It combines better with tussock than stoloniferous grasses in mixed pastures. The location of its growing points at the ends of the main branches makes it susceptible to frequent low cutting as well as to continuous heavy grazing. Flowers are cleistogamous but a small level of outcrossing occurs. Time to flowering can range from 7 - 11 weeks. Subsequent flowering flushes overlap pod maturation from the previous flush, and they continue throughout the year in frost-free regions. At higher latitudes in the tropics, there is usually a peak at the end of the wet season and again at the end of the cool season, if moisture is available. Pods mature in 8 - 10 weeks after flowering and shatter readily once fully dry. There is considerable variation in the size of flowers and leaflets. The plant is propagated by seed and readily self- propagates and spreads under favourable conditions by seed thrown vigorously from the dehiscing dry pods. Seed is also spread in cattle dung.Inoculation of butterfly pea seed with rhizobia is not usually necessary; but, if it is required, broad spectrum cowpea inoculum should be used. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby.
The young pods are eaten as a vegetable. The flowers are used to give a blue tinge to rice cakes and boiled rice. Young leaves - cooked and used as a vegetable. The leaves can also be used to colour food.
The flowers are mixed with water in a preparation used to treat eye problems. The powdered, ripe seeds are aperient and purgative. The roots are bitter, powerfully cathartic, diuretic and purgative. The rootbark is diuretic and laxative. The plant is used in the treatment of snakebites. The seeds contain a fixed oil, a bitter resinous principle and tannins. The rootbark contains tannins.
Butterfly pea has a reputation as a potential fodder plant, hay or cover crop. It has been extensively tested as such, especially in the subhumid to semi-arid tropics. It has never been used in extensive areas, although it is used by smallholders. It is used as a cover crop in coconut in southern India and in rubber in Malaysia. A fast-growing plant, it provides good ground cover.
Native range: Northern and western S. America - Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyanas.
A plant of the hot, humid, lowland tropics, where it can also be found at elevations up to 2,200 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 23 - 30°c, but can tolerate 18 - 35°c. Mature plants can be killed by temperatures of -2°c or lower, whilst new growth is damaged at 0°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,200 - 2,500mm, but tolerates 640 - 4,000mm. Prefers a sunny position, but also succeeds in dappled shade. Tolerant of a range of soil conditions, including limestone. It can succeed on floodplains that are waterlogged for 2 - 3 months each year, and is also remarkably resistant to drought, occurring in regions with a 6-month dry season. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 6.5, tolerating 4.5 - 8. The tree can grow rapidly, even on the poorest nutrient-depleted soils. Seedling trees can commence fruiting when only two years old. Trees can flower and fruit all year round. The tree responds well to coppicing. A highly variable species, forms with the best quality seedpods are seldom found in Central America, where it is quite likely that all the trees are relics of former cultivation. This species has a symbiotic relationship with certain soil bacteria, these bacteria form nodules on the roots and fix atmospheric nitrogen. Some of this nitrogen is utilized by the growing plant but some can also be used by other plants growing nearby.
The pulp surrounding the seeds in the seedpod is white, translucent and jelly-like with a sweet, perfumed flavour. Much esteemed in Ecuador, some forms have a slight cinnamon flavour. The seedpod is up to 100cm long. The seedpod can vary considerably in size and in the quantity of pulp it contains. The best forms are found in S. America.
A decoction of the crushed leaves is taken to relieve coughing. A decoction of the leaves is applied to sores of the lips (perhaps herpes).
Commonly planted as a shade tree in coffee and cacao plantations, since it is fast-growing, fixes atmospheric nitrogen, has a well spreading crown and produces large quantities of leaves which cover the ground and add considerable quantities of organic matter to the soil. In trial experiments on cultivated slopes, a mulch from this tree reduced soil erosion to levels almost equal to those in secondary forests. The leaf litter is high in nitrogen, lignins and polyphenols. It is slow to decompose, but provides a long-term build up of organic nitrogen and effective weed control. Weed biomass decreased considerably in all agroforestry trials with this species, much more than with other leguminous species. Existing trials are too new to ascertain whether the species can maintain or improve soil fertility on acid sites in the long term, but results so far are promising.
Heliconiaceae
1 plantNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Lamiaceae
2 plantsNative range: E. Asia - China, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea.
Patchouli is a plant of the moist tropics, where it is found at elevations from 1,000 - 2,000 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 23 - 28°c, but can tolerate 16 - 32°c. The plant can survive temperatures down to about 5°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 2,200 - 2,600mm, but tolerates 2,000 - 2,800mm. Grows best in a sunny position. Requires a rich, moist soil. Grows best in a fertile, well-drained, loamy to clayey soil. Prefers a pH in the range 6 - 6.5, tolerating 5.5 - 7. All parts of the plant are aromatic when crushed. The plant is often cultivated for its essential oil. A short-lived, perennial species, it provides a first harvest 180 - 210 days after planting, and can be cropped thereafter every 120 - 180 days. Yields from the first cutting are about 1 tonne of dried leaves per hectare. Subsequent cuttings give 0.5 - 1 tonnes. The plant has an economical life of 2- 3 years.
Leaves - the fleshy leaves are sometimes used as a flavouring. An essential oil is obtained from the dried, cured leaves. It is used as a flavouring in various items, such as chewing gum, baked goods and candy.
Patchouli leaves contain an essential oil comprised mainly of the sesquiterpenes patchoulol (35%) and bulnesene. In the East, Patchouli oil is believed to prevent the spread of infection, and it is widely used for this purpose. Both the leaves, and the essential oil obtained from them, are used medicinally and are considered to be antiseptic, aphrodisiac, astringent, diuretic, febrifuge, digestive, sedative, stomachic and tonic. The herb is used internally in the treatment of colds, headaches, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhoea. An infusion is used to make a convalescent bath. Externally, it is used to treat halitosis, a range of skin problems, snake bite etc. The leaves and tops are added to baths, and are said to have an antirheumatic action. The essential oil is used in aromatherapy to treat nervous exhaustion, depression, low libido and frigidity. It is thought to have a regenerative effect upon skin tone and is used to help clear conditions such as eczema and acne. The leaves are harvested 2 - 3 times a year and are usually dried for oil distillation.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Southern N. America - southwestern Mexico (Oaxaca)
Not known
None known
None known
No data available for this section.
Magnoliaceae
1 plantNative range: E. Asia - China, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia.
A plant of the wet tropics and subtropics, also able to be grown in the warm temperate zone. It is found growing at elevations from near sea level to 2,100 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 30 - 37°c, but can tolerate 10 - 47°c. When dormant, the plant can survive temperatures down to about °c, but young growth can be severely damaged at °c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 3,000 - 4,000mm, but tolerates 2,200 - 5,100mm. Requires a sunny position in a moist but well-drained, deep, fertile, loamy to sandy soil. Prefers a pH in the range 4.5 - 5.5, tolerating 4 - 6. Trees propagated from seed take 8 - 10 years to flower, whereas asexually propagated trees flower in 2 - 3 years. In Java the mean annual increment of 10 - 27-year-old trees is 1 - 1.8 metres in height and 1.5 - 2 cm in diameter. A rotation of 50 years is recommended to produce sawn timber. The tree responds well to coppicing The tree is susceptible to fire. The tree flowers and fruits throughout the year. Vesicular-arbuscular nitrogen-fixing mycorrhizae have been observed on the roots.
The aromatic, bitter bark is sometimes used for the adulteration of cinnamon. The fruit is said to be edible.
The bark is used as a febrifuge. A decoction of the bark and leaves is given after childbirth. The flowers are used to treat leprosy. The leaves are used as a treatment against colic. The seeds are used to treat badly chapped skin. Fatty oils extracted from the seeds show antibacterial activity against Bacillus pumilus, B. Subtilis, Salmonella typhosa, S. Paratyphi, Micrococcus pyogenes var. Albus and Staphylococcus aureus.
The tree is used to reforest badly eroded areas in Java. Soil under tree cover shows an increase in pH, soil organic carbon and available phosphorus.
Malpighiaceae
2 plantsNative range: Northern and western S. America - Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia. Ecuador, Venezuela.
A plant of the moist tropics, where it is found at elevations from around sea level up to 1,000 metres.
None known
The bark, leaves and twigs are the source of a beverage that is hallucinogenic. Commonly used in the Amazonian rainforest, it is used shamanically as a tool to contact the spirits and bring healing, and is also used recreationally. The shoots, roots and leaves, sometimes as an admixture with other species, are used by Indians for the preparation of a hallucinogenic beverage, used for special ceremonies or the roots and stems are chewed for this purpose. The dried leaves are also smoked. In addition to its use as an hallucinogenic, the plant is also emetic and purgative. At low doses it is used as a mild detoxifier. The plant contains an alkaloid, known variously as 'telepathin', yagein' or 'banisterine', which has a strongly stimulatory action on the nervous system. The bark contains beta-carboline alkaloids, including harmine, harmaline and delta-tetrahycroharmine. These alkaloids stimulate hallucinations.
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - Peru, Ecuador, Colombia; Central America - Panama to Mexico.
Requires a sunny position. The tree is apparently tolerant of salty environments, given its frequent close proximity to the coast. This species is notable for its large annual crops of mealy-textured, red fruits that are sweet and good-tasting when ripe.
Fruit - raw or cooked. Sweet and pleasant tasting, with a mealy texture. The red fruits are about 3cm in diameter, with a thin mealy flesh surrounding 2 seeds.
None known
The tree is a good example of a pioneer - or secondary forest - species since it requires large amounts of sunlight in order to prosper and it is one of the first trees to colonize an area after it has been disturbed.
Malvaceae
5 plantsNative range: Southern, western and central tropical Africa.
Cola needs a hot humid climate, with a mean annual temperature in the range 26 - 35°c, and a mean annual rainfall of 1,200 - 1,800mm. However, it can withstand a dry season on sites with a high ground water level and it may be cultivated in drier areas where ground water is available. Though it is a lowland forest tree it has also been found at altitudes over 300 metres on deep rich soils under heavy and evenly distributed rainfall. Prefers a minimum temperature no lower than 13°c. Prefers a deep, rich, well-drained soil, although it may also be found in marshy areas. Does well in both light and heavy soils. Intolerant of soils with a high pH. Cola grows naturally in the shade, but it develops a better spreading crown which yields more fruits when grown in open places. Trees start producing at around the age of 12 - 15 years and can produce 10 - 16 kilos of seed annually for more than 80 years. Trees commence flowering and fruiting when they are small. Yields of 300 nuts per mature tree are considered good. Plants are often used as shade trees for cocoa (Theobroma cacao) plantations. Muslims consider the cola nut as sacred and brought by the prophet Mohammed. They use the nut for ceremonial and social occasions.
The aromatic seed is rich in caffeine, containing 1.25 - 2.4% caffeine, and acts as a stimulant. It can be chewed or ground into a powder and made into a drink in order to give energy, increase alertness, retard hunger and fatigue, aid digestion and increase stamina. When the whole nuts are chewed, they taste bitter at first but they leave a sweet taste in the mouth later that affects other foods or drinks that are consumed. Thus chewing cola nuts before drinking water helps to render the water sweeter. The bitter tasting seeds are much appreciated by Muslims in the drier region of West Africa, especially during the month of Ramadan. The nuts are used for non-alcoholic soft drinks like Coca-Cola. An extract, prepared from the dried kernels, is used to flavour carbonated drinks, ice cream, candy, baked goods etc. The kernels can be red, white or pink. The red ones can be used as a natural food colorant.
Cola nuts contain up to 2.5% caffeine, plus theobromine, tannins, phlobaphene and an anthocyanin. They stimulate the nervous system when chewed and are also considered to be a digestive tonic, diuretic, astringent and antidepressant. They counteract overstrain and depression thus improving the physical and mental state. The principle action is that of caffeine. Other active principles include theobromine and kolatine. Because of its astringent properties, cola is used as a non-addictive stimulant in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery, and also to prevent vomiting in cases of high fever. It has also been used in the treatment of headaches and migraine. It has been used in combination with coca leaf (Erythroxylum coca) to produce a stimulant drug that has been used as 'Forced March' tablets by explorers and military expeditions. The crushed nuts are boiled together with the leaves of Morinda lucida and the liquid taken internally to cure piles. The nuts ground to a fine paste together with the leaves of Scoparia dulce, are dissolved in a little water and a few drops are administered orally to babies for headache. The seeds are harvested when fully ripe and dried in the sun. An infusion of the bark mixed with ginger and a little pepper is taken internally to cure stomach ulcers.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Northern S. America - Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia; Central America - Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua.
Succeeds in most soils.
A bitter tasting beverage is made from the seeds. The following report is based mainly on the seeds of H. Nitida, but the seed of this species is likely to be very similar. The seed contains up to 66% oil. It is solid at room temperature, turning liquid at 25 - 29°c. The oil comprises 18 - 26% linoleic acid, 2 - 7% oleic acid and 74 - 76% saturated acids. Fruit - raw. The pulp (aril) surrounding the seeds is delicious and refreshing. This white, acidulous pulp is eaten raw and is most delicious just before the complete ripening of the fruit.
None known
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - southern, central and eastern Brazil.
Prefers a deep, fertile loamy soil in full sun or light shade. A fast-growing tree, it can reach a height of 3.5 metres within 2 years from seed.
Seed - raw or cooked. The seeds can be boiled or roasted like chestnuts. Rich in oil. Similar to groundnuts in flavour. The young leaves are said to be eaten.
None known
The plant is easily reproduced from cuttings and so is widely used as a hedge in coastal regions of Brazil. It is sometimes grown to provide shade in cocoa plantations.
Native range: S. America - Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia; C. America - Panama to Mexico.
A plant of the moist tropics, where it is found at elevations up to 900 metres. The plant can also do well in upland tropical environments. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22 - 28°c, but can tolerate 10 - 35°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,500 - 2,000mm, but tolerates 1,100 - 2,500mm. Grows in part-shade to full shade. The plant prefers alluvial soils and tolerates minimal flooding. Some forms seem to be adapted to deep and prolonged flooding. Grows best in well-drained soil. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 6, tolerating 4.5 - 8.5. The tree slowly increases in size as it ages, and can be very productive. It coppices fairly well, and can produce fruit at times when other fruits are scarce.
Fruit - raw. A pleasant, subacid flavour, though the odour is somewhat disagreeable. It can be used to make desserts and refreshing drinks. The ellipsoid fruit is about 15 - 20cm long and 10 - 11cm in diameter. Seed - cooked. Roasted or cooked with other foods. Used as a beverage. A pleasant taste. The seeds are made into cocoa powder, or are used like almonds. The seeds of species in this genus are generally a rich source of oil (around 50%), starch (around 15%) and protein (around 15%). They also contain a volatile oil and the stimulating alkaloids caffeine and theobromine. The seeds of this species only contain a small amount of theobromine, but are a rich source of cacao butter. A chocolate of inferior quality is obtained from the seeds.
Although no specific reports of medicinal use have been seen for this plant, the seed is a source of cacao powder and butter. These products have the following medicinal uses:- Cacao powder and butter, which are obtained from the seed, are nutritive. The butter is also applied externally as an emollient. Cacao powder is taken internally in the treatment of angina and high blood pressure. Cacao butter is an excellent emollient, being applied to the skin to soothe and soften it. It is used traditionally to treat chapped skin and burns, and is also rubbed into bruises. Research has shown that it can help to counter the bacteria responsible for boils and septicaemia.
This fast growing tree has a small canopy, and can be intercropped with many tree species. It is usually grown as an understory plant in rainforests.
Native range: S. America - Brazil, Peru, Colombia, the Guyanas; C. America - Belize, Guatemala, southern Mexico.
A tree of the lowland tropics, usually found below 300 metres but occasionally found as high as 900 metres. It succeeds where the mean annual temperature is in the range 18 - 28.5°c with a maximum temperature of 30 - 33.5°c and a minimum 13 - 18°c. The absolute minimum is 10°c, below which trees are likely to suffer severe damage. Rainfall should be plentiful and well distributed throughout the year. An annual rainfall level of between 1,500 - 2,000mm is suitable, though it is reported to tolerate an annual precipitation of 480 - 4,300mm. Requires a fertile, moisture-retentive but well-drained soil in sun or part shade in a position sheltered from the wind. Prefers an acid soil. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 6.5, tolerating 4 - 8. An understorey tree of the forest, it grows best in dappled shade, but can even produce well in quite dense shade. There are three main types of cacao:- Criollo Cacaos originated in Central America. It is red skinned and the highest grade, but is low-yielding. Trinitario Cacaos arose in Trinidad. It is high grade. Forastero Cacaos comes from the Amazon Basin. The insignificant flowers have a faint, sweet fragrance. In favourable conditions both flowers and fruit will be borne throughout the year. Freshly planted young trees are slow to establish and grow away, rarely growing more than 1.5 metres tall after 2 years. Weeding and temporary shade are essential within the first 3 - 4 years of establishment before the canopy closes. Plantain appears to meet most of cocoa's requirements in this respect, whereas bananas compete heavily for moisture during the dry season. There are some named varieties.
The dried, fermented and roasted seeds of this plant, called cacao beans, are the source of cocoa, chocolate and cocoa butter. These are widely used in the confectionery industry to made chocolate confections, cakes, ice cream, drinks etc. The somewhat bitter flavour is usually moderated by adding sugar or other sweeteners. The seed contains up to 50% fat. The ripe seeds are cured by pressing, fermenting and then drying them. The cured seeds are then roasted and ground into a powder to make cocoa. A butter-like fat (called cocoa butter) is extracted from the seeds. The fruit contains about 20 - 40 seeds surrounded by a thin, succulent pulp with a slightly sweet flavour. This pulp is sucked as a sweet snack. It can be made into juices and jellies. The seed contains a pigment that is said to be useful as a food colouring.
Although used mainly as a food, cacao does also have some therapeutic value. The seed contains a range of medically active constituents including xanthines, a fixed oil and endorphins. It is a bitter, stimulant, diuretic herb that stimulates the nervous system, lowers blood pressure and dilates the coronary arteries. Cacao powder and butter are nutritive, the latter also soothes and softens damaged skin. The seed is used in central America and the Caribbean as a heart and kidney tonic. An infusion of the baked seed-membranes is drunk as a remedy for anaemia. Combined with the stems of Chromolaena odorata and the wood of Cecropia obtusa, the seed is applied externally as an emollient in a remedy to extract splinters or prickles embedded in the skin. Cacao powder is taken internally in the treatment of angina and high blood pressure. The rural people in Amazonas State, Brazil, rub cocoa butter on bruises. It is often used to treat chapped skin and burns. Research has shown that it can help to counter the bacteria responsible for boils and septicaemia. The leaf contains genistic acid. This has been shown to be antirheumatic and analgesic. An infusion of the leaf buds is used with incense to treat diarrhoea. An infusion of the dry pods is used to decrease leprosy spots.
The tree is often interplanted with bananas, coconuts and rubber.
Moraceae
2 plantsNative range: E. Asia - Indian subcontinent.
A plant of the humid lowland tropics, growing best at an elevation below 1,000 metres, with a mean annual temperature in the range 24 - 28°c, a mean max temperature of 32 - 35°c, a mean minimum temperature of 16 - 20°c, and a mean annual rainfall in the range 900 - 4,000mm evenly distributed through the year. Prefers a climate without a dry season, but can tolerate a short dry season. Jackfruits can grow at higher elevations than the breadfruit and also in cooler and drier climates. They can even succeed in warm temperate areas, but they remain small and any fruit is of poor quality. Trees can bear fruit at latitudes up to 30° from the equator, with good crops up to 25° distant. Succeeds in a variety of soils. Prefers a deep, well-drained alluvial soil. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 7.5, tolerating 4.3 - 8. Young plants need some shade, but need increasing light levels as they mature. Mature plants are relatively drought resistant. Plants have poor drought tolerance. There are two main groups of cultivars, one group has soft rinds whilst the other has hard. Jackfruits produce one of the largest fruits in the world. The trees have a deep taproot. Plants can produce their first crop within 3 years of the seed germinating, but 8 years is a more common time. Flower and fruit loads are initially low and improve with increasing size and age; trees 2 years old produce about 25 flowers and 3 fruits; trees 5 years old bear as many as 840 flowers, and trees 6 years old 1,500 flowers. However, only 15-18 fruits develop due to the low production of female spikes (about 0.6-5% of the total number of inflorescences. Young trees bear more male than female flowers at a ratio of 4:1; production of female flower increases with age. A male-to-female ratio of 2:1 produces 250 fruits per tree, and as the trees ages, fruit productivity declines. In suitable environments trees bear fruits and flowers throughout the year, but in areas with distinct dry and wet seasons, flowering occurs in the wet season. In young trees, fruits are usually borne on branches and in older trees, on trunks and roots. Jackfruit exhibits fairly rapid growth, attaining a height of 3 metres and a canopy diameter of 2 metres at 2 years of age. In 5 years, the tree height reaches 7 metres and the canopy diameter 4 metres; trees 20 years old are about 18 metres, as tree growth slows down with age.
Fruit - raw or cooked in a variety of ways. The pulp of young fruit is rich in carbohydrates and is usually cooked as a vegetable. The fruit becomes sweeter as it ripens, as some of the carbohydrates are converted into sugars. It is often eaten raw at this stage, but is also still cooked as a vegetable. The rind of the fruit yields a fair jelly. The fruit case is enormous, it can be 30 - 50cm long, weigh up to 20kg and contain up to 500 individual golden-coloured fruits. They have rather a strong smell which some people do not like, though they can be dried when the smell is less. A sticky white latex can impede separating the edible part of the fruit - inexperienced eaters can get it stuck all over their hands, but it can be removed by using cooking oil. Seed - cooked. Lovely when boiled or roasted, with a flavour and texture similar to chestnuts. They can be ground into a powder and used in making biscuits. The seeds have a high starch content and about 5% protein. When boiling the seeds, the water is sometimes changed 2 or three times in order to remove an objectionable odour. Very young fruits and leaf shoots - cooked in soups and stews. Young male flowers are eaten mixed with chillies, sugar, salt etc.
The ashes of leaves, with or without oil, are used to treat ulcers, diarrhoea, boils, stomach-ache and wounds. The pulp and seeds of the fruit are regarded as a cooling tonic. The seeds are said to be an aphrodisiac. The sap is an anti-syphilitic and a vermifuge. The wood is claimed to have sedative properties, and its pith is said to be able to induce abortion. A root decoction is used to alleviate fever, treat diarrhoea, skin diseases and asthma. The bacteriolytic activity of the latex is equal to that of papaya latex. Dried latex yields artotenone, a compound with marked androgenic action; it can also be mixed with vinegar to promote healing of abscesses, snakebite and glandular swellings.
The tree has a wide-ranging root system and can be planted to control floods and soil erosion in farms. It is suitable for use in reforestation projects. The tree is often used in mixed plantings. It can be used as a shade tree for coffee, planted with coconut groves, has been used as an intercrop in durian orchards, and with mango and citrus. Young jackfruit orchards may be intercropped with annual cash crops such as banana, sweet corn and groundnut.
Native range: S. America - Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana; C. America - Panama to Mexico.
The plant grows naturally lowland areas of hot, humid, tropical climates with a seasonal dry period. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 18 - 25°c, but can tolerate 12 - 35°c. When established, it can tolerate occasional, short-lived, light frosts. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 600 - 4,000mm, but tolerates 500 - 5,000mm. Of easy culture, it grows best in a humus-rich, fertile, moisture-retentive soil in full sun or light shade. Very tolerant of shallow, calcareous soils. Established plants are very drought tolerant and also tolerate seasonal flooding. Plants can escape from cultivation and become weedy in some tropical areas. Trees can commence producing fruit in 5 - 6 years from seed. Plants flower intermittently throughout the year and can produce two or three harvests.
Seed - raw or cooked. The raw seed has some bitterness, whilst the roasted seed develops a nutty, cacao-like flavour. An agreeable and nourishing food with a flavour similar to hazel nuts. The seed can also be boiled and mashed like potatoes, or made into juice and marmalade. The ground up seeds can be made into a mash to mix with corn when making tortillas. When steeped in water, the seeds make a coffee-like beverage. The seed is the size of a small chestnut. The seed is produced inside a yellow fruit about 25mm in diameter - each fruit contains one seed. The yellow or orange fruit has a sweet, thin edible flesh surrounding the large seed. A sweet, agreeable flavour. The globose fruit is 15 - 20mm in diameter. The milky latex, which flows freely when the trunk is cut, resembles cream and when diluted with water is said to afford a substitute for cow's milk. The latex is also mixed with chicle.
There is a belief in Yucatan that if the seeds are eaten by nursing women the flow of milk is increased. The latex is mixed with water, warmed and drunk as a treatment for dry coughs and for itchy sore throat. The latex is applied directly on sores in the mouth and other parts of the body for healing.
The tree provides good shade and reduces the impact of strong winds.
Myristicaceae
1 plantNative range: E. Asia - Malaysia.
The plant is most suited to growing in the coastal regions of lowland humid tropical areas, though it can also succeed at elevations up to 500 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22 - 34°c, but can tolerate 12 - 38°c. Plants are also very susceptible to frost damage. When dormant, the plant can survive temperatures down to about 5°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,500 - 3,500mm, but tolerates 1,200 - 4,000mm. It prefers growing in areas without a pronounced dry season. Succeeds in full sun and in dappled shade. The tree can grow on any kind of soil provided there is sufficient water, but it must be well-drained. Preferred soils are those of volcanic origin and soils with a high content of organic matter with a pH in the range 6.5 - 7.5. Prefers a pH in the range 6 - 7, tolerating 5.5 - 7.5. The tree only has a superficial root system and so needs to be grown in a position sheltered from strong winds. Seedling trees can commence fruiting when about 8 - 10 years old, whilst grafts can fruit when 4 - 5 years old. One tree can produce 1,000 - 5,000 fruits per year. Yields of nutmeg vary between 500 - 1,200 kilos per hectare. Peak production is attained after 15 - 20 years, and the trees have an economic life of 30 - 40 years, or even 60 - 70 years. Flowering is probably induced by short dry periods. Fruiting is more seasonal in regions with a pronounced dry season. Nutmeg is not strictly dioecious. Male trees show different degrees of femaleness, varying from no fruits at all to as many fruits as a good female tree. A ratio of about 10% male trees should be distributed regularly through the plantation in order to secure a good level of pollination.
The seeds are the source of the spice nutmeg. The seed is usually powdered and then added to a wide range of dishes, most commonly sweet dishes such as custards, sauces, cakes and puddings, but in Europe it is also added to some savoury dishes. The dried flesh surrounding the seed is the source of the spice mace. This is used to flavour mainly savoury dishes such as soups, sauces, curries, pickles and baked goods, but can also be used in fruit salads, cakes etc. When sprinkled on cooked cabbage, it masks the sulphide odour. The flesh of the fruit is cut in slices and eaten as a delicacy with sambal. Young husks (pericarps) are made into confectionery (jellies, marmalades, sweets and preserves, very popular in West Java and Malaysia). Essential oils (mostly nutmeg oil from the seed and mace oil from the aril, but also from the bark, leaf and flower) and extracts (e.g. oleoresins) are often used in the canning industry, in soft drinks and in cosmetics.
The seed of nutmeg is rich in essential oils. It is a bitter, astringent, spicy herb that acts as a warming, digestive tonic. It controls vomiting and relaxes spasms. When applied externally, it has an antiinflammatory effect. Nutmeg is also said to have stimulant, carminative and aphrodisiac properties. The seed is taken internally in the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting, abdominal distension, indigestion and colic. Externally, the seed is used to treat toothache, rheumatic and abdominal pains (including labour pains). Some caution is advised - taken in excess the seed can cause severe headache, nausea, dizziness and delirium. The seed is used in Ayurveda to treat poor digestion, insomnia, urinary incontinence and premature ejaculation. Nutmeg can be used as a narcotic with hallucinogenic effects but it is dangerous; the consumption of two ground nutmegs (about 8 g) is said to cause death, due to its myristicin content. On Zanzibar nutmegs are chewed as an alternative to smoking marihuana.
No data available for this section.
Myrtaceae
4 plantsNative range: S. America - coastal southern Brazil.
Grumichama requires a humid, tropical to subtropical climate, growing best at very low elevations of 90 metres or less. The temperature range for growth is reported to be 15 - 38°c with the optimum between 21 - 32°c. Mature trees tolerate frost to -3 °c for short periods, but young shoots are affected. The annual rainfall range for growth is reported to be 800 - 3,500mm with the optimum between 1,200 - 2,500mm. The plant is adversely affected by a long, dry season. Succeeds in full sun or part day shade. Adaptable to a range of soil types, preferring a medium-acid soil, but intolerant of alkaline soils. Prefers high levels of organic matter in the soil, especially when grown on light soils. Prefers a position sheltered from strong winds. Generally slow-growing, the plants can commence flowering and fruiting when 4 years old from seed. In the subtropics the trees flower synchronously in spring. The fruit ripens within one month and the harvest is over in a matter of days. In the tropics flowering and fruiting extend over several months. The fruits can vary considerably in colour and two distinct forms have been described. The species type has a black-skinned fruit; E. Brasiliensis leucocarpa has yellow fruits; E. Brasiliensis erythrocarpa has red-skinned fruits that are sweeter than the other forms.
Fruit - raw or used in jams, jellies etc. The deep crimson fruit has a thin and delicate skin, soft and melting pulp and a mild subacid taste. The taste largely resides in the skin. Excellent when eaten fresh. The persistent sepals ('rabbit ears') and the modest flesh to seed ratio limit the appeal of the fruit. The fruit is a purple to black, globose to oblate berry, up to 3 - 5cm in diameter.
An infusion of 10 g of leaves or bark in 300 ml water is used as an aromatic, astringent diuretic and as a treatment for rheumatism in Brazil.
The plant is used as a pioneer species in reforestation projects on degraded soils. Often grown for its fruit, the plant can also be used to form living fences.
Native range: S. America - Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia.
A plant of the moist to wet lowland tropics, where it is found at elevations up to 650 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22 - 30°c, but can tolerate 18 - 34°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 2,000 - 3,500mm, but tolerates 1,500 - 4,000mm. It can tolerate a seasonal dry spell of up to 2 months. Succeeds in full sun and light shade. Prefers a well drained rich loamy soil, but will tolerate poorer clay oxisols, provided they are well drained, and also tolerates acid soil stress. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 6, tolerating 4.5 - 6.5. The plant prefers a well-drained soil, but tolerates limited flooding - though some trees appear to adapt to floods over time. A relatively slow-growing plant.
Fruit - raw and made into juices, jams, ice creams and sherbets etc. The thick, very succulent pulp is aromatic with an acid flavour. The fruit loses its flavour and aroma quickly when cooked, so is best quick-boiled if used for making jam. The yellow fruit is around 8cm in diameter. It is very high in vitamin C, double the amount of the average orange. The fruits bruise easily and don't ship well. The root is edible.??.
Some people eat the fruit when unripe in order to eliminate parasites. The bark is used medicinally. No more information.
This is a small tree whose size and shape allow it to mix well with many tree crops. Some specimens are bushy, while others have an architecture similar to cacao trees. Although relatively slow growing, it is a suitable species for rehabilitating exhausted land.
Native range: C. America - Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Nicaragua, Belize, Guatemala, Mexico; Caribbean - Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Cuba.
A plant of the moist to wet lowland tropics, growing best at elevations below 330 metres but able to be grown up to 1,500 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 15 - 32°c, but can tolerate 10 - 35°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,500 - 2,500mm, but tolerates 1,000 - 3,500mm. Prefers a rich, well-drained sandy soil in a sunny position. Prefers a pH in the range 7 - 7.5, tolerating 6.3 - 8. A slow-growing plant, it takes 20 years to flower from seed. Trees may come into bearing in 5 - 10 years, but require 20 - 25 years for full harvest to be achieved. They have an economical life of about 50 years. Young trees 10 - 15 years old may yield 23 - 60 kilos of green pimento berries in a good year, but fail to crop in a bad year. Average yield is about 5 kilos per tree. Plants can be harvested every third year. The berries and leaves are usually not harvested from the same tree. The forms from the West Indies have smaller fruits that contain more than twice as much essential oil as forms from Central America.
The dried fruits are used as a flavouring in a wide range of foods. They are said to combine the aroma and flavour of nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon. They are used in pickles, sauces, ketchup, soups, ice cream etc. They are an important component of pimento dram, a Jamaican drink made with rum, and of liqueurs like Benedictine and Chartreuse. Leaves - used as a condiment or steeped to make a tea. An essential oil obtained from the leaves is used to flavour a wide range of foods, including baked goods, candy and chewing gum.
Allspice berries contain about 4% essential oils (of which about 80% is eugenol), proteins, lipids, the vitamins A, B1, B2 and C, plus minerals. It is a pungent, warming, aromatic herb with a clove-like aroma. It improves the digestion, has a tonic effect upon the nervous system and is locally antiseptic and anaesthetic. It is used internally in the treatment of indigestion, wind, diarrhoea and nervous exhaustion. Allspice is often combined with herbs that have a tonic or laxative effect. Externally, it is used to treat chest infections, muscular aches and pains. The essential oil is carminative and antioxidant. The essential oil is used to ease the pain of toothache. The powdered berries are added to other medicines in order to disguise unpleasant flavours.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Northern S. America - Venezuela; Caribbean - Trinidad to Cuba.
A plant of lowland tropical areas, where it is found at elevations up to 750 metres. It grows best in areas where the mean annual temperate is within the range 22 - 28°c, but can tolerate 18 - 32°c. It can tolerate occasional very light frosts, the leaves being damaged at temperatures of -1°c, and limbs being killed at -3°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall of 1,400 - 2,000mm, but can tolerate 700 - 2,800mm. Prefers an annual rainfall of 2,500mm evenly distributed over the year with few months with less than 200 mm rainfall, although natural stands occur in areas with only 750 mm annual rainfall. Although trees grow well with 1,250 - 1,500mm annual rainfall, regrowth following pruning is too slow for commercial plantations to be profitable. Prefers a sunny position, succeeding in most soils that are well-drained. Growth is best on deep fertile loamy soils with a slightly acid to neutral pH, but most plantations are on marginal soils on slopes, better soils being allocated to food crops. Prefers a pH in the range 5 - 6, tolerating 4.5 - 7. After planting, young plants require protection from direct sunlight until they are well established. Topped seedlings often produce several main shoots. Two main shoots are sometimes retained, since experience has shown that foliage yield is higher than from single-stemmed trees. After 2 - 3 years, the trees are topped at 3 - 5 metres and are maintained at that height. Trees coppice well - misshapen or diseased trees can be cut back to ground level, allowing a new shoot to grow from the stump. Well managed groves are harvested once a year or 3 times in 4 years. The harvesting interval depends more on the age of the leaves than on the rate of regrowth. Leaves are shed after 2 - 3 years, so a harvesting interval longer than 2 years may result in reduced yields. Harvesting can be done year-round, though dry periods are preferred. It is not clear whether the higher yield during this period is due to a higher leaf oil content or to a higher proportion of mature leaves. Leaf yield in established groves may vary between 8 - 35 t/ha (with an oil content of 1 - 3.5%). The life of plantations is indeterminate, as trees regenerate from stumps, but the effect of regular harvesting on the life expectancy is not known. Individual trees of 50 years old are known. A variable plant, with several varieties being recognized. The var grisea yields a very inferior essential oil that, if combined with other varieties, can have a very negative effect on oil quality. Care should be taken to remove any spontaneous seedlings that do not yield commercially acceptable bay leaf oil.
The aromatic fruits, bark, and especially the leaves, are processed for use as a spice. The leaves are used as a spice in cooking. The dried green berries have a spicy flavour with hints of cinnamon, clove and nutmeg and are used as a spice. The red-brown to black fruit is a fleshy, subglobose to ellipsoid berry, 8 - 12mm long with 1 - 3 seeds. The leaves are used to make an aromatic tea.
Bay rum tree has many uses in traditional medicine, mostly based on the antibiotic properties of the phenols in the essential oil. Bay Rum (the leaves distilled in rum) has been used in folk medicine for treating sore muscles, strains, and sprains. A tea from the leaves is drunk as a stimulant and as a treatment for flatulence, colds and fever. The essential oil from the leaves is used as a remedy for stomach pains, and is applied externally to treat skin diseases.
No data available for this section.
Oxalidaceae
1 plantNative range: Southeast Asia - Indonesia in the Moluccas.
A plant of the humid tropical lowlands, where it can also be found at elevations up to 1,200 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 23 - 30°c, but can tolerate 10 - 36°c. Mature plants can be killed by temperatures of -3°c or lower, but young growth is severely damaged at -1°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,200 - 2,300mm, but tolerates 700 - 4,000mm. The trees are found to grow well at low altitudes from sea level up to 500 metres in areas having an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year. They are also quite tolerant to dry periods, growing well when there is a 2 - 3 month dry season. The trees are very susceptible to frost injury. Prefers a position in full sun, making rather slow growth in shady or semi-shady situations. The plant thrives well on any soil type provided it is well drained. However, for best performance, it should be grown in deep, fertile, sandy loam or clay loam soils with plenty of organic matter. Grows best in a position sheltered from strong winds. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 6.5, tolerating 5 - 8.3. Trees can commence cropping when 5 - 6 years old from seed. Grafted trees can commence bearing when 2 - 3 years old. A single tree can often yield many hundreds of fruits. Yields from 50 - 150 kilos per tree have been reported. Flowers and fruits are produced throughout most of the year, although there are normally one or two pronounced harvesting seasons, each about 2 months long. Flowering and fruiting occurs especially during the drier part of the year.
The fruit is occasionally eaten raw with salt or sliced thin and added to salads, though most people find it too acid and instead use it in curries, sauces etc. When ripe it is crunchy, juicy, acidic, and contains a few, flattened, non-arillate seeds. It is used extensively as a souring agent for many native dishes. It may also be processed into candies or made into chutneys, relishes and pickles306]. The fruit is a good source of vitamin C. The greenish yellow, translucent fruits are somewhat cylindrical or slightly pentagonal in shape, varying from 5 - 10cm in length. Flowers. Very acid. Made into conserves.
The leaves can be used to cure syphilis when taken internally, either fresh or fermented. Three leaves are put in water and the liquid is drunk daily as a remedy for high blood pressure. When applied externally as a paste or poultice, the leaves prevent itching. A decoction of leaves is used to cure inflammation of the rectum and the paste is applied for mumps, rheumatism and pimples. An infusion of the flowers is used for coughs. The fruit is an astringent, stomachic and refrigerant and its juice is made into syrup as a cooling drink for reducing fever. It is antiscorbutic and is used in some slight cases of haemorrhage from the bowels as well as the stomach and internal haemorrhage. It is also used to cure beriberi, biliousness and coughs. One or two pickled fruits are eaten for controlling diarrhoea. A rotten fruit is rubbed into the skin to treat fungal diseases.
No data available for this section.
Passifloraceae
1 plantNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Phytolaccaceae
1 plantNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Piperaceae
1 plantNative range: E. Asia - Indian Subcontinent.
Piper nigrum is a plant of the hot and humid lowland tropics, where it grows best at elevations up to 500 metres, but can be grown up to 2,000 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22 - 35°c, but can tolerate 10 - 40°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 2,500 - 4,000mm, but tolerates 2,000 - 5,500mm. Grows best in sheltered positions in semi-shade. Prefers a neutral soil rich in organic matter. Prefers a pH in the range 6 - 7, tolerating 5 - 7.5. Level ground is most suitable for the production of pepper, provided there is no flooding, but it is often grown in rolling country or on hill slopes of varying steepness. The plant begins to bear in 3 - 4 years, can reach full production after 7 years and has an economic life of about 12 - 20 years. Optimum yields at low capital input are 6 tonnes per hectare of the unprocessed (green) peppers; 2 tonnes of the sundried (black) peppers; or 1.67 tonnes of the washed and dried (white) peppers. In gardens with higher inputs, yields may be 8 - 9 tonnes of green pepper in the first harvest and 12 - 20 tonnes in the sixth or seventh harvest. The root system can be 4 metres or more deep.
The pungent fruits, known as peppercorns, are dried, ground into a powder known as black pepper, and used as a condiment. A hot flavour. The globose, red fruit is 4 - 6mm in diameter. A milder flavoured spice, known as white pepper, can be obtained if the outer coverings of the fruit are removed. Unripe green fruits are pickled in vinegar and used as a relish. An essential oil obtained from the seed is used as a flavouring various foods.
Black pepper fruits contain an essential oil (comprising beta-bisbolene, camphene, beta-caryophyllene and many other terpenes and sesquiterpenes), up to 9% alkaloids (especially piperine which is responsible for the acrid taste), about 11% protein and small quantities of minerals. They are a pungent, aromatic, warming herb that lowers fever, is antiseptic and improves digestion. Black pepper is regarded as a stimulating expectorant in Western and Ayurvedic medicine, and as a tranquilizing and anti-emetic in Chinese medicine. The seed is used internally to treat indigestion and wind in western herbalism. In Chinese medicine it is used as a warming herb to treat stomach chills, food poisoning, cholera, dysentery, diarrhoea and vomiting caused by cold. It is used externally in Ayurvedic medicine to treat nasal congestion, sinusitis, epilepsy and skin inflammations. The essential oil is antiseptic, antibacterial and febrifuge. It has been used to ease rheumatic pain and toothache.
No data available for this section.
Poaceae
3 plantsNative range: A tropical plant, not known in the wild, but probably originating in Sri Lanka or Malaysia.
Cymbopogon citratus is a plant of the tropics and subtropics, where it can be found at elevations up to 1,400 metre, though it grows best below 500 metres.. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 24 - 30°c, but can tolerate 18 - 34°c. It can be killed by temperatures of 10°c or lower. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,500 - 3,000mm, but tolerates 700 - 4,200mm. Prefers a moisture-retentive soil in full sun. Requires a well-drained soil - commercial plantations often favour sandy soils, although good growth has also been observed in Australia on a clay soil with pH 9.6 and in Sarawak on an acid peat soil. The plant tillers strongly and the number of tillers is directly correlated with the number of leaves and with oil yield. Only young, expanding leaves synthesize and accumulate essential oil. Harvesting begins when the crop is 120 - 240 days old, and the plant is subsequently harvested every 90 - 120 days. The plant has an economical life of 4 - 6 years. The average annual foliage yield is 30 - 50 tonnes per hectare, yielding 75 - 250 kg lemongrass oil (0.25 - 0.50%). Foliage yield of 100 tonnes per hectare has been achieved under optimum circumstances, and with efficient management and improved selections the oil yield can be increased to 0.4 - 0.6%. Harvesting the top parts gives an oil yield of 0.6%, while the lower parts yield only 0.15%. Fresh grass yields 0.2 - 0.4% oil, with an average yield of 50 - 120 kilos of oil/ha per annum. Yield of foliage is higher on fertile heavy soils, but under these conditions the oil usually has a lower citral content The plant seldom flowers. Lemongrass should be stored separately from other foods, or should be well wrapped, otherwise its strong scent will taint the other foods.
The heart of the young shoots is eaten as a vegetable with rice. The basal portions of the leafy shoots have a delicious lemon-like aroma and are used as a flavouring in soups, sauces and curries. Particularly popular in southeast Asia, they are added to spicy sauces such as 'sambal goreng' and 'sambal petis' and to cooked fish and fish sauces. Older leaves can be cooked with other foods in order to impart their lemon-like flavour. They are removed before serving. A refreshing tea can be brewed from the leaves. It can be served hot or cold. It can be sweetened with sugar. The essential oil is used as a flavouring in the food industry in soft drinks and various foods.
Lemon grass is a bitter, aromatic, cooling herb that increases perspiration and relieves spasms. The essential oil obtained from the plant is an effective antifungal and antibacterial. The essential oil contains about 70% citral, plus citronellal - both of these are markedly sedative. Internally, the plant is used principally as a tea in the treatment of digestive problems, where it relaxes the muscles of the stomach and gut, relieving cramping pains and flatulence. It is particularly useful for children, for whom it is also used to treat minor feverish illnesses. Externally, especially in the form of the extracted essential oil, the plant is a very effective treatment for a range of skin conditions including athlete's foot, ringworm, lice and scabies. It is also applied to ease the pain of arthritic joints.
A good soil conditioner in worn out land. The plants quickly produce a bulk of organic material which soon rots down, attracting worms and other beneficial creatures and quickly enriching the soil. A row of lemongrass plants can be used as a divider in the garden - it can help to contain more invasive plants such as sweet potato, and also as a barrier to prevent weeds growing into the garden. The grass is useful for soil improvement and erosion control.
No cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Eastern Africa - Sudan to S. Africa; E. Asia - India, Sri Lanka.
A plant of the moist, lowland tropics, where it is found at elevations up to 1,500 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 20 - 30°c, but can tolerate 16 - 36°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,300 - 2,000mm, but tolerates 750 - 4,100mm. Prefers a moisture-retentive soil in full sun. Prefers a pH in the range 4.5 - 6, tolerating 4 - 8. A first harvest of the leaves for essential oils can be obtained after about 240 days; the plant can then be harvested every 90 - 120 days for about 10-15 years. Lemongrass should be stored separately from other foods, or should be well wrapped, otherwise its strong scent will taint the other foods.
The leaves are used as a flavouring in curries, soups etc. The white centre of the succulent stems is used to impart a flavour to curries. An aromatic tea can be obtained from the leaves. An essential oil is obtained from the plant. This oil contains geraniol, citral and citronellal. It is much used by the food industry to flavour a wide range of foods. Citral can be used to imitate apple, lemon, strawberry and vanilla flavours.
The leaves are antispasmodic, diaphoretic, digestive and stimulant. An infusion of the leaves is used to treat diarrhoea spasms. An infusion of the leaves, with alcoholic spirits or sweet spirits of nitre, is used to treat colds.
No data available for this section.
Rubiaceae
8 plantsNative range: Northwestern S. America - Colombia and Brazil, north through Central America to Nicaragua.
A plant of warm tropical lowlands usually at elevations up to 700 metres, but sometimes to 1,200 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures fall within the range 20 - 28°c, though it can tolerate 15 - 32°c. Temperatures in its native region may reach up to an absolute maximum of 41°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 3,000 - 6,000mm, tolerating 2,500 - 9,000mm. It thrives with high air humidity average up to almost 90%. Succeeds in heavy soils. Prefers a pH in the range 4.5 - 6.5, tolerating 4 - 7. The fruit takes more than one year to ripen after flowering. A dioecious species, both male and female forms need to be grown if fruit and seed are required.
Fruit - eaten raw or made into jellies, preserves, sauces, ice cream etc. A sweet, aromatic flavour with some bitterness. The green to brown fruit is 7 - 12 cm in diameter with a brown pulp that is very acid and dense. The fruit pulp is used to prepare juice (jugo del amor), compotes, marmalades, candies and wine.
The fruit is prized for its tonic and cure-all qualities. It is famous in western Colombia for its supposed aphrodisiac properties.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Africa - Tropical regions in the northeast.
In equatorial regions, the plant can be grown at elevations from 1,300 to 2,800 metres, with 1,500 - 1,900 metres being most common. The minimum elevation reduces to about 500 metres at a latitude around 15°N or S, whilst in the subtropics it can be grown from sea level to 1,000 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 14 - 28°c, but can tolerate 10 - 34°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,400 - 2,300mm, but tolerates 750 - 4,200mm. With too much rainfall the plant tends to develop wood at the expense of flowers and fruits. One to 2 months of less than 50mm rain facilitates uniform flowering. Heavy rain during and after harvest is not desirable. Prefers a position in light shade. Shading improves leaf and shoot growth but reduces root growth. Prefers a deep friable soil on undulating land. Plants are unsuited to stiff clay or sandy soils, but are considered tolerant of acid soils. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 7, tolerating 4.3 - 8.4. Plants can begin to bear within 2 - 3 years and are in full bearing at the age of 6 - 8 years. The optimum yield of clean dry coffee beans is 2- 3 tonnes/ha, which has been obtained in Kenya. The average yields are about 0.5 tonnes/ha in Brazil and 0.9 tonnes/ha in Africa. Coffee plants can produce economic yields for 30 - 40 years on average, though this can vary from 10 - 70 years and plants of 80 - 100 years are known. The plant is tetraploid, and over 30 mutations have been recognized. In the bisexual flowers, pollen is shed shortly after the flower opens, and the stigma is receptive immediately. Self-pollination can occur, as seed sets even when the flowers are bagged. Pollination is also by honeybees, which collect nectar and pollen from the flowers.
The dried seeds ('beans') are roasted, ground, and brewed to make one of the two most popular beverages in the world. Coffee is widely used as flavouring in ice cream, pastries, candies, and liqueurs. The seed has been used as a masticatory since ancient times. Cooked in butter, it can be used to make rich flat cakes. An extract from the seeds is used as a flavouring in ice cream etc. The dried, roasted green seeds have been used as an appetizer, whilst chocolate-covered roasted seeds are used as a gourmet snack. The red fruits and leaves are chewed for their stimulating properties. Leaves - cooked. The cooked leaves have a strong brown colour, a good texture and a rather neutral flavour with only a hint of bitterness. The leaves contain more caffeine than the fruit and are sometimes used as a tea substitute.
The seed contains caffeine, a widely used stimulant that is also used in proprietary painkillers to potentiate the effect of aspirin and paracetamol. It also contains the stimulants theobromine and theophylline, as well as chlorogenic acid, which is stimulant and diuretic as well as a known allergen.The seed is a bitter, aromatic, stimulant herb that has diuretic effects and controls vomiting. It is reported to be analgesic, an aphrodisiac, anorexic, antidotal, cardiotonic, CNS-stimulant, counterirritant, diuretic, hypnotic, galactagogue and nervine. Whilst not usually recognised as a medical herb, coffee is a highly effective general stimulant, having a particular effect upon the central nervous system, improving perception and physical performance. It has been found of help in some cases of headache or migraine. An enema made using coffee beans is an effective cleanser for the large bowel. Coffee is a folk remedy for asthma, atropine poisoning, fever, flu, headache, jaundice, malaria, migraine, narcosis, nephrosis, opium poisoning, sores and vertigo.
The plant is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans or rice, during the first few years of growth.
Native range: Tropical west and central Africa.
Liberian coffee is a plant of the humid, lowland tropics, where it performs better than arabica and robusta coffees. It is found at elevations up to 600 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 24 - 30°c, but can tolerate 18 0 36°c. It can be killed by temperatures of 5°c or lower. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,600 - 2,400mm, but tolerates 1,100 - 3,500mm. Plants grow best under light shade, on well-drained clayey to sandy soils, although it is generally grown in full sunlight in Malaysia. Plants are tolerant of acid and poor soils - they have been known to grow successfully on alluvial muck soils with a pH of about 4.0. Prefers a pH in the range 5.3 - 6.2, tolerating 4.3 - 8. Established plants, especially from the 'Excelsa' group of cultivars, are drought tolerant. Plants are intolerant of waterlogged soils. The first fruits are produced 2 - 3 years after planting out in the field. After 5 - 6 years the plants are in full bearing. The economic life span of a plant is about 25 - 30 years. Flowering and fruiting may take place throughout the year, but flowering is triggered by heavy showers; the flower buds grow to a certain size and then rest until stimulated by continued water stress and rapid rehydration, resulting in simultaneous blooming. The species is self-incompatible. Fruit maturation takes 10 - 12 months, depending on the locality The weight of dry 'green beans' is about 10% of that of fresh fruits. Annual yields of 750 - 900, occasionally to 1,100 kg/ha of green beans can be obtained from well-maintained holdings. Improved cultivars have a potential annual yield of 1.7 t/ha and selected clones even 2.1 - 2.3 t/ha. This is a complex species that has often been treated as a number of distinct species in the past. Indeed, there is still debate amongst botanists as to whether it should be treated as two distinct species. From the growers point of view, however, there are clear differences between the two groups. The complex is here treated as one species with two main varieties:- var dewevrei (De Wild. & T. Durand) Lebrun. Known as 'Excelsa coffee', from the growers viewpoint this differs in being more drought tolerant and having a smaller fruit up to 20mm x 16mm. Var liberica. Known as 'Liberian coffee'. The fruit is up to 25mm x 21mm, has a thicker, more leathery pericarp and is often more tapered towards the base Although this species contributes only about 1% to total world coffee production, it is grown more extensively in southeast Asia with 80% of coffee production in Malaysia being of this species, for example, and about 25% in the Philippines.
The roasted, powdered seed is used to make the well-known drink coffee. That made from this species has a more bitter taste than that of the well-known arabica or robusta coffees. The taste of excelsa coffee, which originates from a botanical variety of this species, is less bitter than that of true Liberian coffee. On a dry matter basis the beans contain about 0.5 - 1.8% of caffeine.
The leaves are used to treat headaches and sore eyes.
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyanas; C. America - Panama to Mexico; Caribbean- Trinidad
Grows best in a sunny position. Prefers a moist soil.
None known
The stem bark is bitter, febrifuge, stomachic and tonic. A decoction of the grated bark is used as a treatment for malaria, fevers and vomiting. The bark can be used as a substitute for quinine (Cinchona spp.) when treating malaria, and is also used for treating swamp fever. The root bark is mixed in a decoction with stem bark and then used as an antidiabetic and vermifuge. The plant is a rich source of neoflavonoids and their glycosides. One of the compounds in the plant has been shown to exert a relaxing effect upon the trachea. The plant extract has been shown to be antiinflammatory.
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, the Guyanas; C. America - Panama to Mexico; Caribbean- Trinidad
Grows best in a sunny position. Prefers a moist soil.
None known
The stem bark is bitter, febrifuge, stomachic and tonic. A decoction of the grated bark is used as a treatment for malaria, fevers and vomiting. The bark can be used as a substitute for quinine (Cinchona spp.) when treating malaria, and is also used for treating swamp fever. The root bark is mixed in a decoction with stem bark and then used as an antidiabetic and vermifuge. The plant is a rich source of neoflavonoids and their glycosides. One of the compounds in the plant has been shown to exert a relaxing effect upon the trachea. The plant extract has been shown to be antiinflammatory.
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - All countries except Uruguay, Chile; C. America - Panama to Mexico; Caribbean - Trinidad to Cuba, the Bahamas and to Florida.
The plant can flower and produce fruit all year round.
It is reported that the sour fruits are edible as well as medicinal. The pulp is eaten. The juicy, elliptic berries are 6 - 9mm long, containing many, minute seeds.
The fruits and leaves have served for home remedies in some countries. The leaves and young shoots are taken in order to procure an abortion up to the third or fourth month of pregnancy.
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela; Caribbean - Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti; C. America - Panama to Mexico.
Succeeds in full sun and in partial shade. Prefers a well-drained soil on the alkaline side.
None known
The leaves are often added to the hallucinogenic drink 'Ayahuasca', (which is prepared from Banisteriopsis Caapi and B. inebrians in the western Amazon) in order to 'strengthen' and 'lengthen' the effects of the drink. The leaves contain the compound N,N,-dimethyltryptamine, and this has been shown to enhance the action of the β-carboline alkaloids harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine that are found in the Banisteriopsis.
No data available for this section.
Native range: S. America - Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela; C. America - Panama.
A plant of the hot, wet tropical lowlands. It can tolerate short-lived mild frosts. Succeeds in ful sun and in partial shade. Grows in acid soils. A dioecious species, both male and female forms need to be grown if fruit and seed are required.
Fruit - raw or cooked. Eaten fresh or used to make jams, jellies, preserves and beverages. The sweet tasting fruits have a hard yellow shell containing a dark black pulp. They are said to have a flavour like molasses or blackberry jam. The subglobose fruits are about 3cm x 2cm.
None known
No data available for this section.
Rutaceae
4 plantsNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Native range: E. Asia - China, India, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines.
A plant of low to moderate elevations in the tropics. It should be hardy to at least 0°c. Succeeds in full sun to partial shade. Prefers a fertile, moisture-retentive but well-drained medium that is rich in organic matter. The plant flowers and fruits all year round.
Fruit - raw. Sweet and fleshy. The small, translucent pink fruits have a juicy flesh and a sort of spicy, gin-like flavour. The reddish, sub-globose fruit is 8 - 10mm in diameter.
The plant is often used in traditional medicine, both on its own and as an ingredient of various medicinal mixtures. Several alkaloids and amides that have been isolated from the plant are reported to have biological activities. Glycozolidol, a carbazole alkaloid isolated from the roots, is active against some gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Leaf and stem bark extracts have been shown to have a healing effect upon damaged liver tissue. Extracts of the root bark have been shown to exhibit significant activity in the treatment of diarrhoea. An ethanol extract was found to be more effective at lower dosages than an aqueous extract. A steam distillate of the leaves has shown high antifungal activity against Cladosporium cladosporioides, but no activity against Staphylococcus aureus or Escherichia coli. A decoction of the roots is taken to treat bilious attacks. A decoction of roots and leaves is taken for intestinal trouble. An infusion of leaves and roots is given after childbirth as a protective medicine. The leaves are considered appetitive, stomachic and an infusion of roasted leaves is prescribed for women after delivery as an appetizer. In traditional Indian medicine, the plant is used to treat diarrhoea, coughs, rheumatism, anaemia, and jaundice. Juice of the leaves is used in fever, liver complaints and as a vermifuge. A paste of the leaves, mixed with ginger, is applied for eczema and skin affections. A decoction of the roots is given for facial inflammation.
No data available for this section.
Native range: E. Asia - China, Indian subcontinent, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam.
A plant of the moist tropics, where it is found at elevations up to 1,600 metres. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 27 - 41°c, but can tolerate 8 - 47°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 1,400 - 1,800mm, but tolerates 500 - 2,500mm. Grows best in full sun. A very easily grown plant, succeeding in most soils and situations. Prefers a fertile, humus-rich, moisture-retentive but well-drained, light soil. Prefers a pH in the range 5.5 - 6.5, tolerating 5 - 7. Established plants are drought tolerant. Plants can sucker freely and also spreads by seeds, so it can become invasive. Due to the vigorous suckering, plants are not really very suitable for small gardens.
Leaves - cooked. The pungent, aromatic leaves are a common ingredient in curries, chutneys, stews etc. An indispensible ingredient in southern Indian curries. The leaves retain their characteristic flavour and aroma even after drying. Another report says that the leaves are little know away from areas in which the plant is grown because the leaves lose their flavour upon being dried. Fruit - a peppery flavour. The black fruit is 8 - 10mm in diameter.
Curry leaf contains several medically active constituents including a glycoside called koenigin, an essential oil and tannins. It is a warming, strongly aromatic herb that improves appetite and digestion. The leaves, roots and bark can all be used internally in the treatment of digestive problems. It has been shown that the leaves increase digestive secretions and relieve nausea, indigestion and vomiting. The leaves can be used internally in treating constipation, colic and diarrhoea. The leaves are used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. The leaves can be applied externally as a poultice to treat burns and wounds. The leaves are harvested as required and used fresh. The roots and bark are harvested as required and can be used fresh or dried. The juice of the fruit, mixed with lime juice (Citrus aurantiifolia) is applied to soothe insect bites and stings. A paste made from the bark is applied to the bites of poisonous insects and other animals.
Plants can be grown as a hedge.
No cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Sapotaceae
3 plantsNative range: S. America - Brazil, Bolivia and Peru, north to the Caribbean and through C. America to Costa Rica.
A tree of the hot, wet, tropical lowlands, it requires a year-round moist and warm climate. Plants are intolerant of frost. Succeeds in full sun and in dappled shade. Grows well in wet soils. Prefers an acid soil. Seedling trees take up to 8 years before they start to fruit, and some are very shy fruiters. It is therefore best to propagate vegetatively from good fruiting forms. Grafted plants can fruit in 3 - 4 years. Good forms can fruit twice a year. Mature trees may produce anywhere from 100 - 1,000 fruits a year. A large tree, it is best kept pruned to about 4 metres tall in order to make fruit harvest easier. There are some named varieties. The quality of the fruits is much higher in recent selected strains. Some forms are self-fertile, though others need cross-pollination.
The fully ripe fruit has a delicious flavour - it is eaten raw or used in sherbets and ice cream. It goes particularly well in fruit salads, especially if they contain orange slices to add acidity. A lovely bright yellow fruit with a whitish, translucent flesh that has a jelly-like consistency and a sweetish flavour. The fruit has a flavour somewhat like a rambutan. It is up to 10cm in diameter. Fruit that is not fully ripe can contain a milky latex that sticks to the lips. The fruit has a thin skin that bruises easily, so the fruit will not store for more than a few days.
None known
No data available for this section.
Native range: C. America - Panama to Mexico.
It can succeed in the lowland moist tropics or subtropics up to elevations of 1,400 metres. In its native range, the average temperature ranges between 25 and 28°c, though good yields and fruit quality can be obtained at temperatures between 30 and 33°c. It is very intolerant of low temperatures, being quickly damaged or killed if temperatures drop much below 2°c. It grows well in areas where the mean annual rainfall varies from 800 - 2,500mm. It is very susceptible to drought. It grows well in maritime areas, where it shows good wind resistance. Prefers a rich, deep, moist soil and a position in full sun. Tolerant of a wide range of soil types, including sandy and clay soils. Requires a very well-drained soil. Tolerates a pH in the range 5 - 7. Seedling trees begin to bear fruit after 7 years or longer, whilst grafted trees begin to bear in 3 to 5 years. It takes from 13 - 24 months for fruit to reach maturity and so trees may have flowers, immature fruit and mature fruit all at the same time. The sapote is a very prolific cropper, mature trees may bear 200 to 500 fruit per year, whilst twice this amount may be obtained from large trees. There are some named varieties.
The ripe fruit is eaten raw, made into sherbets, ice cream, drinks etc and can also be dried. Unripe fruits are cooked as a vegetable. The pulp of the ripe fruit is salmon-red to reddish-brown in colour, it has a firm, finely granular texture and a rich, sweet almond-like flavour. The ovoid fruit varies in size from 8 - 20cm long. The fruit of most cultivars tends to weigh within the range of 500 - 1,000g, though they can weigh up to 2.7 kilos. Seeds. They have a flavour similar to bitter almonds. The ground up seeds are added to texate, made into a confection or mixed with cornmeal, sugar and cinnamon to make a nutritious beverage called pozol. The seed can be milled to prepare a bitter chocolate. The seed kernel yields 45 to 60% of a white, semi-solid, vaseline-like oil which is edible when freshly extracted and refined.
The seed kernel oil is used as a skin ointment and as a hair dressing that is believed to stop falling hair. In 1970, clinical tests at the University of California at Los Angeles failed to reveal any hair-growth promoting activity but confirmed that the oil of sapote seed is effective in stopping hair-fall caused by seborrhoeic dermatitis. The oil is said to be diuretic and is also employed as a sedative in eye and ear ailments. The seed residue, after oil extraction, is applied as a poultice on painful skin afflictions. The seed kernel is regarded as a digestive. A seed infusion is used as an eyewash. The pulverized seed coat is reported to be a remedy for coronary trouble and, taken with wine, is said to be helpful against kidney stones and rheumatism. The Aztecs employed it against epilepsy. The bark is bitter and astringent and contains lucumin, a cyanogenic glycoside. A decoction of the bark is taken as a pectoral. A tea of the bark and leaves is administered in arteriosclerosis and hypertension. The milky sap is emetic and anthelmintic and has been used to remove warts and fungal growths on the skin
No data available for this section.
No cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Selaginellaceae
1 plantNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Urticaceae
1 plantNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
Verbenaceae
1 plantNative range: Through tropical and subtropical America, and the Caribbean, from Argentina to southern N. America.
Prefers a position in full sun in any moderately fertile, well-drained soil. A slow-growing plant.
The leaves are used mainly as a flavouring in soups etc, and occasionally as a cooked vegetable. They have an intense aniseed aroma. A pleasant tasting tea is make from the leaves.
A tea made from the leaves is a favourite domestic remedy in Central America for both intestinal and respiratory disturbances, including influenza. A well-sugared infusion is drunk to bring relief of heart problems and to soothe tachycardia. Used externally, the aromatic leaves are used in herbal baths, to cure fevers and severe stomach pain, and to cleanse the bladder. The plant contains an essential oil composed principally of dihydrocarvone. Other compounds include limonene, pinene, linalol, and camphor.
No data available for this section.
Zingiberaceae
4 plantsNative range: E. Asia - India.
A plant of the moister tropics, it is usually cultivated at an elevation of 600 - 1,500 metres. A uniformly distributed rainfall of 2,500 - 3,800mm per year is considered optimal, though the plant can tolerate from 1,500 - 5,800 mm. Months with less than 125 mm rainfall have to be regarded as drought months. Optimum annual mean temperatures are considered to be around 22°c. The diurnal temperature may vary between 10 - 35°c. In the lowlands, where the annual mean temperatures are above 24°c, cardamom only propagates vegetatively; the plants do not grow where annual mean temperatures are below 17°c. Grows best in a rich, moist, well-drained soil in partial shade. Cardamom does not tolerate prolonged exposure to direct sunlight; about 50% is thought to be optimal. Evergreen montane forest land supplies the most favourable environment for cardamom, with soils varying from deep forest loam to white quartz gravel with only a shallow zone of humus accumulation. Plants are intolerant of drought, failing to produce seed if short of water when forming the inflorescence or flowering, and often dying if there are 2 drought years in a row. Cardamom comes into bearing about 3 years after planting out, which may be 4 - 5 years after sowing. Plants can produce economic quantities of fruit for 10 - 15 years. Flowers are self-sterile, therefore it is necessary to plant a mixture of clones. Flowering may occur throughout the year. The flowers open from the base of the panicle upwards over a long period, sometimes even more than one year. Flower buds require about 30 days from initiation to full bloom, capsule development takes a further 110 days. After the panicles have flowered, fruited and died, the vegetative shoots bearing them also die off.
The aromatic fruit and seeds are much used as a spice in a range of dishes. The spice is used in the form of the whole fruit, the decorticated seeds, or the ground seeds. It plays an important role in a variety of spiced rice, vegetable and meat dishes, is used to flavour coffee and tea and is an important ingredient of curries. In the food and beverage industry it is used for flavouring confectionery, a range of baked goods, prepared savoury dishes, and a range of beverages. Locally, it is used as a masticatory, often included in the betel quid, and industrially it is used to a small extent in flavouring tobacco. Cardamom essential oil, which is extracted from the fruit, is mainly used in the flavouring of processed foods, but also in certain beverages such as cordials, bitters and liqueurs. Cardamom oleoresin, which is also obtained from the fruit, has similar applications to the essential oil but is used less extensively. Both the oil and oleoresin tend to develop off-flavours when exposed to the air for prolonged periods, so their use is generally confined to meat products with a short shelf-life, such as sausages. The young shoots can be eaten raw, steamed or roasted. The leaves are used to wrap other foods whilst cooking.
The seeds, and an essential oil obtained from them, are a pungent, warm, aromatic herb that has stimulating, tonic effects, especially on the lungs and kidneys. It relaxes spasms, is expectorant and improves digestion. It reputedly detoxifies caffeine and counteracts mucus-forming foods such as dairy products. It has a long-lasting reputation as an aphrodisiac. The seed is taken internally in the treatment of indigestion, nausea, vomiting, enuresis and pulmonary diseases with copious phlegm. It is used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat bronchial and digestive complaints. The seed is chewed after meals in order to sweeten the breath. When taken with garlic, it helps to neutralize the garlic aroma. When used as a tincture, this herb is subject to legal restrictions in some countries. The fruits are harvested in the dry season and dried whole. The seeds are removed for oil extraction or to use medicinally in liquid extracts, powders etc. The ground rhizomes are used to treat colds.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Southeast Asia - Thailand, Malaysia through Indonesia and the Philippines.
Prefers a position in full sun or partial shade. Succeeds in a moist, fertile, but well-drained soil. Plants can flower all year round.
Leaves - cooked with rice. The young flower shoots and half-ripe fruiting shoots are used locally as a substitute for tamarind. Used as a condiment in curries. The stalks of the inflorescence are chopped and added to laksa pots (various curries or soups made with rice noodles). The fruits are candied. Half-ripe fruits are eaten in soups and stews. The ripe seeds are eaten raw.
The fruits and leaves are utilized medicinally.
No data available for this section.
Native range: Southeast Asia - Thailand, Malaysia through Indonesia and the Philippines.
Prefers a position in full sun or partial shade. Succeeds in a moist, fertile, but well-drained soil. Plants can flower all year round.
Leaves - cooked with rice. The young flower shoots and half-ripe fruiting shoots are used locally as a substitute for tamarind. Used as a condiment in curries. The stalks of the inflorescence are chopped and added to laksa pots (various curries or soups made with rice noodles). The fruits are candied. Half-ripe fruits are eaten in soups and stews. The ripe seeds are eaten raw.
The fruits and leaves are utilized medicinally.
No data available for this section.
Native range: E. Asia - China, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia
Hedychium coronarium is a plant of subtropical to tropical regions. It is not very cold-hardy, tolerating short-lived temperatures falling to about -2°c). , 200 Title The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. Publication Author Huxley. A. Publisher MacMillan Press Year 1992 ISBN 0-333-47494-5 Description Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed. ]. Requires a rich moist soil and a sunny position or partial shade. It succeeds in shallow water. Plants often escape from cultivation and become naturalised. They can spread considerably by means of their rhizomes to form dense thickets - these can quite hard to eradicate. The flowers have a delicious perfume which is most pronounced towards evening. Plants seem to be immune to the predations of rabbits. The tubers should be only just covered by soil.
Young buds and flowers are steamed and eaten, or used as a flavouring. Root - cooked. A famine food used when all else fails.
The seed is aromatic, carminative and stomachic. The root is antirheumatic, excitant and tonic. The ground rhizome is used as a febrifuge. A decoction is used to treat pain in the chest and arms. An essential oil from the roots is carminative and has anthelmintic indications. A decoction of the basal part of the stem is gargled in the treatment of tonsillitis, or, alternatively, a part of the stem may be chewed. The chewed stem is applied to infected nostrils. An infusion of the leaves is used to treat abdominal complaints. Combined with the leaves of Lantana camara, it is used as a febrifuge. The boiled leaves are applied to stiff and sore joints.
No data available for this section.
Unknown
3 plantsNo cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No cultivation data available.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.
No data available for this section.








































































































































































